SKETCHES 


OF  THE 


HISTORY    OF    LITERATURE 


FROM   THE 


EARLIEST  PERIOD 


TO    THE 


Heinfoti  of  Xrttrrs  in  the  jFttarntfi  Ofcntttrg. 


ladocti  discant,  ament  meminisse  periti. 
BY  WILKINS  TANNEHILL. 


NASHVILLE: 

JOHN  S.  SIMPSON — DEADERICK-STREET, 
1827. 


DISTRICT  OF  WEST  TENNESSEE,  ss" 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  this  20th  day  of  June,  in  the  year  1827, 
and  51st  year  of  American  Independence,  Wilkins  Tannehill  hath  de- 
posited in  this  office  the  title  of  a  book,  the  right  whereof  he  claims  as 
author,  in  the  words  following;,  to  wit:  "Sketches  of  the  History  of 
Literature,  from  the  earliest  period  to  the  revival  of  letters  in  the  fif- 
teenth century.  Indocti  discnnt  amcnt  meminisse  periti.  By  Wilkins 
Tannehill."  In  conformity  to  an  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  Uuited  State?,  entitled, 
"an  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and 
books,  to  the  proprietors  and  authors  of  such  copies,  during  the  time  therein  mentioned;" 
and  also  the  act,  entitled,  "an  act  supplementary  to  an  act  for  the  encouragement  of 
|  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  propri- 
etors of  such  copies,  during  the  time  therein  mentioned,  and  extending  the  benefit 
thereof  to  designing,  engraving,  and  etching  historical  and  other  prints." 

N.  A.  M'NAIRY,  Clerk 
Of  IMF  District  of  West  Tennessee. 


p/V 


THE  work  now  presented  to  the  public  is  one  of  hum- 
ble pretensions,  and  goes  forth  unprotected  by  the  pat- 
ronage of  rich  and  powerful  booksellers.  Prepared  du- 
ring intervals  ot  occasional  leisure  from  the  duties  of  an 
employment  little  congenial  with  literary  pursuits,  and 
without  any  opportunity  for  consulting  extensive  libraries, 
it  aspires  only  to  the  character  of  sketches,  without  pre- 
tending to  be  a  complete  history.  It  is  an  attempt  by  a 
"backwoodsman"  to  condense  and  comprise  within  a 
narrow  compass,  the  most  prominent  and  interesting 
events,  connected  witji  the  progress  of  literary  and  sci- 
entific improvement,  from  the  earliest  period  through  a 
long  succession  of  ages,  and  amidst  a  great  variety  of  cir- 
cumstances. The  author  is  well  aware  that,  from  the 
nature  of  things,  its  deficiencies  must  appear  numerous 
and  obvious  to  the  scholar  and  man  of  extensive  erudition. 
Many  events,  no  doubt,  have  been  more  slightly  noticed, 
than,  from  their  importance,  they  deserved  to  be ;  and 
some,  perhaps  equally  interesting,  have  been  entirely  over- 
looked. These  remarks  are  made,  not  for  the  purpose 
of  averting  the  arrows  of  criticism,  to  which  every  man 
who  ventures  to  publish  a  book  must  expect  to  be  exposed ; 
but  in  order  fairly  to  exhibit  the  true  design  of  the  work, 
and  to  point  out  the  class  of  readers  for  whom  it  was  spe- 
cially intended.  To  those  who  have  no  opportunity  for  ex- 
tensive reading,  and  Who  may  wish  to  take  a  rapid,  gen- 

M76Q87 


*b 

efal  survey  of  the  past  history  of  literary  improvement, 
this  volume  may  prove  a  source  of  valuable  and  interest- 
ing information,  not,  perhaps,  elsewhere  to  be  found,  with- 
in so  narrow  a  space.  As  a  book  of  occasional  reference, 
it  may  be  convenient  even  to  the  classical  scholar,  and  to 
the  student  who  aspires  to  a  minute  acquaintance  with  his- 
torical details,  it  may  not  be  without  its  use,  by  affording 
facilities  for  reviewing  and  arranging  the  knowledge  ac- 
quired by  more  extensive  research.  Such  as  it  is,  this  vol- 
ume appears  before  the  public  a  candidate  for  patronage 
and  favor,  in  the  hope,  that  all  due  and  reasonable  allow- 
ances will  be  made  for  its  defects,  and  that  its  merits  will 
be  fairly  appreciated,  although  proceeding  from  an  indi- 
vidual unknown  to  fame,  and  issued  from  the  press  in  th^ 
remote  interior  of  the  western  country. 


x  INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTER  I.  Hieroglyphic  and  Alphabetic  writing.  Sketch  of  the  Literature 
of  the  Egyptians.  Of  the  Hebrews.  Of  the  Hindoos.  Of  the  Chaldeans.  Of  the 
Persians. 

CHAPTER  II.     Literature  of  the  Greeks.     Greek  poets;  Orpheus,  Linus,  Mu~ 
saeus.      The  ancient  bards.     Of  Homer;    Hesiod;    Archilochus;    Tyrtaeus;    AlcaBUS; 
Sappho.     Of  the  origin  of  the  Drama,  and  Dramatic  poetry.    Thespis  the  first  actor. 
Pratinas. 

CHAPTER  III.  Literature  of  the  Greeks.  Slesichorus ;  Anacreon ;  Simonides ; 
Pindar:  JEschylus;  extracts  from  the  tragedy  of  Agamemnon.  Sophocles;  extract* 
from  the  tragedy  of  (Edipus  Tyrannus.  Euripides;  extracts  from  the  tragedy  of  Iphi- 
genia  in  Aulis. 

CHAPTER  IV.  Literature  of  the  Greeks.  Greek  comedy — the  old,  the  middle 
and  the  new.  Greek  comic  writers;  Eupolis;  Cratinus;  Aristophanes;  Crates;  Pherei* 
crates;  Anaxandrides;  Epicrates;  Eubulis;  Alexis;  Antiphanes;  Menander;  Phile- 
mon. Remarks  on  pastoral  poetry ;  the  pastoral  poet,  Theocritus ;  Appolonius  Rhodius. 

CHAPTER  V.  Literature  of  the  Greeks.  Of  the  different  sects  of  Greek  phi- 
losophers. The  Ionic  school;  Thales,  Anaximander,  Anaximenee,  Diogenes,  Appol- 
lionates,  Archelaus.  Of  the  Socratic  sect;  Socrates,  Zenophon,  jEschines,  Simon,  Ce- 
bes.  The  Cyrenaic  sect;  Aristippus,  Arete,  Hegisias.  The  Megaric  or  Eristic  sect; 
Euclid  of  Megara,  Eubulides,  Stilpo.  The  Eliac  sect;  Phoedo,  Menedemus.  The 
Academic  sect;  Plato,  Speusippus,  Zenocratvs,  Polemo, Grantor.  The  Middle  acade- 
my; Arcesilaus.  The  New  academy ;  Carneades,  Clitomachus,  Antiochus.  The  Peri- 
patetic sect;  Aristotle,  Theophrastus,  Strato.  The  Cynic  sect;  Antisthenes,  Diogenes, 
Hipparchia.  The  Stoic  sect;  Zeno,  Cleanthes;  Posidonius. 

CHAPTER  VI.  Literature  of  the  Greeks.  Philosophers  of  the  Italic  or  Pytha- 
gorean school ;  Pythagoras,  Empedocles  The  Heraclitean  sect ;  Heraclitus,  Hippocra- 
tes. The  Epicurean  sect;  Epicurus.  .The  Sceptic  sect;  Pyrrho,  Timon,^Enesidemu5. 

CHAPTER  VII.  Literature  or  the  Greeks.  Greek  historians:  Cadmus  of  Mil- 
etus; Phenecydes;  Hecateus;  Herodotus;  Thucydides;  Xenophon;  Philistus;  Megas- 
thenes;  Polybius;  Diodorus  Siculus;  Dionysius  of Halicarnassus.  Greek  orators;  Pi- 
theus;  Georgias;  Lysias;  Isocrates;  jEschines; Demosthenes. 

CHAPTER  VIII.  Literature  of  the  Romans.  Early  history  of  Rome.  Numa, 
the  successor  of  Romulu?.  The  Fescinnene  verses.  Satires.  The  first  dramatic  poetv 
Livius  Andronicus.  Ennius ;  Accius ;  Nevius ;  Pacuvius ;  Plautus ;  Coecilius ;  Terence. 

CHAPTER  IX.  Literature  of  the  Romans.  Didactic  poetry.  Lucretius;  Ter- 
rentius  Varro;  accession  of  Augustus  to  the  Roman  empire;  Virgil;  Ovid;  Tibullus; 
Propcrtius;  Horace;  Influence  of  government  upon  literature.  Lucan;  Persius;  Juve- 
nal; Martial,  the  epigramatist;  Silius  Italicus;  Statius.  Decline  of  dramatic  poetiy. 
Shows  of  gladiators. 


VI 

CHAPTER  X.  Literature  of  the  Romans.  Importance  of  history.  Roman  his- 
torians, Pictor,  Csesar,  Nepos,  Livy,  Paterculus,  Tacitus,  Quintus  Curtius,  Suetonius, 
Justin,  Arrian,  Pausanias. 

CHAPTER  XI.  Literature  of  the  Romans.  Roman  orators  and  miscellaneous 
writers.  Tiberius  and  Caius  Gracchus,  Hortensius,  Cicero,  Quintillian,  Pliny  the  el- 
der, Pliny  the  younger,  Lucian,  Plutarch. 

CHAPTER  XII.  Rise  and  progress  of  philosophy  at  Rome,  to  the  death  of  Mar- 
cus Aurelius.  Numa,  one  of  the  earliest  philosophers  of  Rome.  Introduction  of  Gre- 
cian philosophy,  by  Carneades  the  academic,  Diogenes  the  stoic,  and  Critolaus  the 
Peripatetic,  opposed  by  Cato  the  Censor;  edict  of  the  Roman  senate ;  Scipio  and  others, 
became  disciples.  Pythagorean  system;  Publius  Nigidius.  The  Platonic  school;  Sto 
ics;  Cato  of  Utica,  a  stoic;  the  Peripatetics;  Crassus.  The  Epicurean  system;  Lucre- 
tius. Introduction  of  Christianity,  remarks  thereon. 

CHAPTER  XIII.  History  of  Literature,  from  the  accession  of  Commodus,  to 
the  reign  of  Constantino.  Celsus ;  Modern  Platonic  or  Eclectic  sect  of  philosophers;  Po- 
lamo;  Ammonius;Tertullian;  Clemens  Alexandrinus;  Origen;  Plotinu?;  Porpher)';  I- 
amblichus ;  Longinus. 

CHAPTER  XIV.  History  of  literature,  from  the  accession  of  Constantine,  to 
the  foundation  of  the  French  monarchy  by  Clovis.  Conversion  of  Constantine  to  the 
Christian  religion,  his  character;  Arius  and  the  Arian  heresy;  Council  of  Nice;  Lanc- 
tantius;  Eusebius;  Ossian;  the  Celtic  and  Scandinavian  bards;  Massacre  of  the  Welsh 
bards;  Constantius;  Julian  the  apostate;  his  attempts  to  subvert  Christianity  ;  encour- 
ages learning;  Jovian;  St.  Augustine;  Hypatia  a  female  philosopher  of  Alexandria, 
basely  murdered  by  order  of  the  patriarch  Cyril;  Ausonius;  Theodosius  the  Great 
Division  of  the  Roman  empire  into  the  Eastern  and  Western  empires;  Incursions  of  the 
Barbarians;  Fall  of  the  western  empire  in  the  reign  of  Romulus  Augustulus;  Learning 
in  the  eastern  empire. 

CHAPTER  XV.  History  of  literature,  from  the  foundation  of  the  French  mon- 
archy by  Clovi?,  to  the  reign  of  Charlemagne.  The  Druids  of  Gaul  and  Britain;  their 
powers;  their  religious  doctrines;  their  learning.  The  Greek  colony  of  Marseilles; 
the  schools  of  Marseilles  and  plan  of  education.  Introduction  of  Christianity  into  Gaul : 
itseflect.  Sidonius;  Fortunatus;  Boethius;  Gregory  of  Tours;  Fredegarius;  Vener- 
able Bede;  decline  of  learning  in  England  after  the  death  of  Bede. 

CHAPTER  XVI.  Sketch  of  the  history  of  the  literature  of  the  Arabians,  from  the 
time  of  Mahomet  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain,  with  a  sketch  of  Spanish  lit- 
erature after  that  period.  Mahomet,  the  Arabian  prophet;  Almanzor;  Al-Raschid; 
Al-Mamon;  Arabian  poets;  translations  of  Arabian  poetry:  Al-Farebi;  Al-Rasi;  Abul- 
Husien ;  Aviccnna;  Al-Gazel;  Conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Moors;  Reign  of  Abdurrah- 
man— Literary  inssitutions  in  Spain;  Spanish  Arabian  philosophers,  Avenpace,  Aven- 
zoar  and  Averroes ;  the  poem  of  the  Cid ;  extracts  from  it;  Gonzales  de  Berceo ;  Alphon- 
zo  X;  Don  Juan  Manual;  Vasco  de  Lobiera. 

CHAPTER  XVII.  History  of  literature  from  the  accession  of  Charlemagne  to 
the  begining  of  the  eleventh  century.  Character  of  Charlemagne;  Alcuin,  a  learned 
Englishman;  Seminaries  of  learning;  course  of  education.  Charlemagne  as  an  author: 
specimen  of  his  poetry;  decline  of  learning  after  the  death  of  Charlemagne;  Charles 
the  Bald,  a  patron  of  learning;  Thegan;  Walafride;  Condition  of  Britain  from  the  in- 
vasion of  Julius  Caesar  to  the  reign  of  Alfred.  Alfred  a  patron  of  learning;  founds  the 
university  of  Oxford;  Joannes  Scotus;  Dunstah.  State  of  learning  during  the  tenth 
'•entury.  Gerbert  archbishop  of  Rheims. 


Vll      ,    .     g.  » 

CHAPTER  XVIII.  History  of  literature  from  the  begimng  of  the  eleventh  to 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Conquest  of  England  by  William  of  Normandy; 
Its  effect  upon  learning;  Ingulph;  Anselm;  Fulbert;  Barengarius;  scholastic  philoso- 
phy; crusades;  William  de  Champeaux;  Abelard;  Peter  Lombard ;  John  of  Salisbu- 
ry; Thomas  Aquinas;  Roger  Bacon.  The  Troubadours;  specimens  of  their  poetry ; 
Arnaud  de  Marveil;  Pierre  Vidal ;  decline  of  the  Troubadours ;  the  Trouveres;  their 
romances;  sacred  drama;  extract  from  the  "mystery  of  the  passion." 

CHAPTER  XIX.  History  of  literature  from  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth,  to  the 
revival  of  letters  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Michael  Scot;  John  Dun  Scotus;  William 
Occam;  Mathew  Paris;  university  of  Naples;  university  of  Paris;  college  of  Sorbon- 
ne;  university  of  Oxford;  university  of  Cambridge;  John  Wickliffe,  the  reformer; 
Dante,  extracts  from  his  vision ;  Petrarch,  sonnet  writing;  sonnets  of  Petrarch;  Bocca- 
cio;  LeontiusPilatus;  Geoffry  Chaucer;  Gower;  specimens  of  their  poetry;  James  I, 
king  of  Scotland ;  Walsingham,  Otterbourne  and  Elmham,  English  historians ;  Sir  John 
Fortescue,  an  eminent  civilian;  Earl  of  Worcester.  Foundation  of  the  universities  of 
Saint  Andrews  and  Glasgow,  in  Scotland. 

CHAPTER  XX.  The  revival  of  learning  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Emmanuel 
Chrysoloras,  a  learned  Creek,  visits  Italy,  and  revives  the  taste  for  the  Greek  language. 
The  family  of  Medici.  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  a  distinguished  patron  of  learning.  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici,  surnamed  the  magnificent;  specimens  of  his  poetry.  Politiano  and  Luigi 
Pulci,  extracts  from  their  poems.  Conclusion . 


•". 


INTRODUCTION. 


AMONG  the  most  interesting  events  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  are  the  rise  and  progress  of  literature,  its  general  diffusion, 
and  the  influence  it  has  exerted,  and  still  continues  to  exert,  upon 
the  moral,  intellectual  and  political  condition  of  the  human  race. 
The  influence  of  literature  and  science,  is  well  worth  the  inves- 
tigation, not  only  of  the  philosopher,  who  enters  minutely  into 
the  examination  of  causes  and  effects,  but  of  every  rational  and 
intelligent  mind;  and  its  history  is  no  less  a  subject  of  interest- 
ing pursuit.  It  js  a  pleasing  employment,  when  the  mind  is  un- 
disturbed by  the  cares  of  the  world,  or  not  engaged  by  more 
profound  studies,  to  trace  its  progress  through  its  various  ramifi- 
cations and  gradations,  its  elevations  and  depressions,  from  its 
first  rude  beginnings,  when  knowledge  was  conveyed  in  symbols 
and  hieroglyphics,  to  its  present  "high  and  palmy  state."  Like 
every  thing  else,  dependant  upon  human  exertion  for  its  cultiva- 
tion and  improvement,  it  has  had  its  seasons  of  prosperity  and 
glory;  and,  notwithstanding  the  inestimable-  blessings  it  is  cal- 
culated to  bestow,  it  has  also  had  its  seasons  of  humiliation  and 
depression. 

When  we  compare  the  condition  of  a  civilized  and  enlightened 
people  with  that  of  the  wild  and  untutored  savage,  whose  benight- 
ed mind  no  genial  ray  of  science  illumines,  the  influence  of  learn- 
ing is  strikingly  displayed.  In  the  latter  we  behold  mind  in  a  rude 
and  uncultivated  state,  rough  and  unpolished  as  the  most  pre- 
cious of  gems,  before  the  hand  of  the  lapidary  has  removed  the 
external  coat  which  conceals  its  beauties.  Contented  with  the 
objects  which  surround  him,  and  with  which  he  has  been  fami- 
liar from  his  infancy,  the  uncultivated  man,  notwithstanding  his 
native  energy  of  intellect,  discovers  no  great  merit  in  the  im- 
provements daily  making  by  his  more  enlightened  neighbours,  in 
the  arts  which  conduce  to  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of  life ; 
nor  does  he  discover  any  extraordinary  development  of  mind 
in  the  various  improvements  and  discoveries  in  the  different  de- 
partments of  science.  But  let  these  things  be  explained  in  a 


x  •  INTRODUCTION. 

manner  which  he  can  comprehend,  and  if  he  is  not  able,  from 
the  peculiar  circumstances  of  his  situation,  to  adopt  them  in  real 
life,  he  will  be  constrained  to  acknowledge  the  advantages  to  be 
derived  from  mental  cultivation.  The  influence  of  learning  is 
obvious  also,  when  we  compare  the  civil  and  political  institu- 
tions of  a  country,  where  seminaries  of  learning,  unrestrained 
by  arbitrary  rules,  are  supported  and  encouraged  by  public  and 
private  munificence,  arid  where  learning  is  generally  diffused, 
with  those  of  another  where  knowledge  is  limited  to  a  few — 
where  fairsciencespreadsnothercheeringbeamsabroad  through- 
out the  land.  %  In  the  one,  the  people  are  generally  intelligent, 
if  not  learned,  and  are  capable  of  understanding  and  properly 
appreciating  their  civil  and  political  rights;  they  are  in  the 
peaceful  possession  of  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of  life,  and 
are  contented  and  happy.  In  the  other,  "oppression  rules  the 
hour;"  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  debased  by  ignorance  and 
superstition,  are  poor,  wretched  and  dependant  upon  the  whims 
and  caprices  of  some  petty  tyrant,  who,  "clothed  with  a  little 
brief  authority,"  exercises  it,  not  for  the  general  good,  but  for 
his  own  private  advantage,  and  to  gratify  his  lust  of  power. 

Seated,  as  it  were,  upon  a  commanding  eminence,  the  lover  of 
learning  at  the  present  day,  can  see  what  it  once  was,  and  what 
it  now  is.  He  beholds  many  a  solitary  place  made  glad  by  the 
influence  of  literature,  whilst  its  gentle  and  beneficent  stream 
continues  to  flow  and  spread,  and  like  the  fruitful  JSile,  fertilizes 
the  soil  which  would,  otherwise,  remain  a  barren  waste,  or  pro- 
duce only  the  noxious  weeds  of  error.  From  this  eminence  he 
casts  a  retrospective  glance  over  the  plains  and  mountains  of 
Greece,"the  land  of  battle  and  of  song,"  and  beholds  them  as  they 
were  in  the  days  of  her  glory  and  renown.  The  venerable  groves 
of  the  academy  and  the  lyceum  rise  to  his  view,  where  lessons  of 
wisdom  once  flowed  from  the  lips  of  a  Plato  and  an  Aristotle, 
and  he  dwells  with  enthusiasm  upon  that  proud  era  of  her 
history,  when  the  streets  of  Athens  were  crowded  with  philoso- 
phers, orators,  poets  and  historians,  whose  genius  still  throws  a 
splendid  light  over  a  country,  once  the  theatre  of  so  many  glo- 
rious achievements,  now,  alas!  the  land  of  oppression,  ignorance 
and  superstition.  The  banner  of  Mahomet  now  waves  over  her 
ruined  temples,  her  porticos  and  her  monuments,  and  but  little 
remains  to  designate  the  spot  where  Athens,  unrivalled  in  lite- 
rature and  unequalled  in  arts,  once  stood,  the  admiration  of  the 
world; 

And  yet  how  lovely  in  thine  age  of  wo, 
Land  of  lost  gods  and  godlike  men!  art  thou'. 
Thy  vales  of  evergreen,  thy  hills  of  snow, 
Proclaim  thee  nature's  varied  favorite  now. 

Lord  Byron, 


INTRODUCTION.  x£ 

From  the  shores  of  classic  Greece,  the  eye  of  the  observer  is 
next  directed  to  imperial  Rome,  and  rests  upon  the  palaces,  the 
temples,  the  columns,  the  triumphal  arches,  which  once  adorn- 
ed the  seven  hills  of  the  "Eternal  City."  He  contemplates  with 
pleasure,  mingled  with  regret,  that  bright  period  in  her  literary 
history,  distinguished  as  the  Augustan  age.  when  the  bard  of 
Mantua  tuned  his  pipe  upon  the  banks  of  the  Tiber.  He  sees 
before  him  that  illustrious  band  of  literary  men  who  crowded  the 
court  of  Augustus,  and  who,  supported  by  his  liberal  patronage, 
were  enabled  to  contribute  so  much  to  advance  the  literary  re- 
putation of  a  people,  previously  distinguished  more  for  deeds  of 
arms,  than  for  the  encouragement  of  letters  and  learned  men. 
At  no  antecedent,  and  at  few  subsequent  periods,  were  literary 
men  more  munificently  rewarded,  than  during  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus. He  had  overcome  his  political  rivals,  and  upon  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  republic,  had  erected  the  imperial  throne, 
contrary  to  the  wishes  of  the  people.  Although  his  power  was 
supported  by  armed  legions,  Augustus  judged  it  prudent  to  adopt 
other  means  to  gain  the  people ;  hence  he  extended  the  hand  of 
patronage  to  the  literary  men  of  the  day,  who  repaid  his  muni- 
ficence by  extolling  his  virtues  and  the  mildness  of  his  govern- 
ment— thus,  in  a  great  degree,  reconciling  the  people  to  his 
usurpations  of  power,  and  the  extinction  of  their  liberties.  Of 
their  merits  we  shall  speak  hereafter.  A  few  years  subsequent 
to  this  period  witnessed  the  decline  of  Roman  power  and  gran- 
deur, and  of  learning — the  Roman  capital  became  subject  to 
the  barbarians  of  the  north — the  Gothic  hordes  who  disregard- 
ed the  refinements  of  civilization ,  and  overturned  and  trampled 
>ipon  the  elegant  productions  of  Grecian  and  Roman  art. 

The  Goth,  the  Christian,  time,  war,  flood  and  fire, 
Have  dwelt  upon  the  seven-hill'd  city's  pride; 
She  saw  her  glories  star  by  star  expire, 
And  up  the  steep  barbarian  monarchs  ride 
Where  the  car  climb'd  the  capitoi;  far  and  wide 
Temple  and  towfcr  went  down,  nor  left  a  site: — 
Chaos  of  ruins!  who  shall  trace  the  void, 
O'er  the  dim  fragments  cast  a  lunar  light, 
And  say,  "here was,  or  is"  where  all  is  doubly  night! 

Chil.Har.C.4.  LXXX. 

The  depression  of  learning,  after  Christianity  became  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Roman  empire,  is  as  remarkable,  as  it  is  difficult 
to  be  accounted  for,  upon  any  correct  system  of  reasoning.  The 
obvious  tendency  of  the  Christian  religion,  when  free  to  act  is, 
not  only  to  shed  abroad  a  knowledge  of  salvation,  and  point  to 
the  bright  realities  of  another  world,  but  to  enlighten  and  libe- 
ralize the  mind,  making  it  the  receptacle  of  science.  Unfortu- 


xu  INTRODUCTION. 

nately,  liowever,  a  different  spirit  prevailed — as  soon  as  tht 
sceptre  fell  from  pagan  hands,  a  persecuting  and  intolerant  spirit 
pervaded  the  empire,  as  a  retaliation  for  the  persecutions  en- 
dured by  the  Christians  during  the  supremacy  of  pagan  pow- 
er; the  pagan  schools  were  closed,  and  in  a  short  time  all  the 
learning  of  the  times  was  confined  to  the  higher  clergy,  who 
were  as  ambitious  of  temporal,  as  they  were  of  spiritual,  power. 
Nothing  more  clearly  marks  the  spirit  of  the  times,  than  a  for- 
mal decree  of  an  ecclesiastical  council,*  which  proscribed  and 
persecuted  what  was  called  "pagan  learning,"  that  is,  the  poetry 
and  philosophy  of  the  ancients,  and  which  prohibited  even 
bishops  from  reading  secular  books.  The  stores  of  ancient  learn- 
ing and  wisdom  were  then  mouldering  in  the  cells  of  monaste- 
ries, inaccessible  to  any  but  illiterate  monks,  who,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  ignorance  of  even  the  rudiments  of  learning, 
were  unable  to  avail  themselves  of  the  treasures  within  their 
grasp.  The  whole  circle  of  monkish  literature  embraced  only 
the  legends  of  saints  and  the  records  of  the  wonderful  miracles 
of  holy  martyrs.  This  age  of  ignorance  continued  through  the 
long  period  of  twelve  centuries,  scarcely  a  gleam  of  intellectual 
light  breaking  through  the  dark  cloud  which  hung  over  it.  The 
princes  and  nobles  of  those  days,  who  ought  to  have  been  its 
patrons,  were  too  much  devoted  to  war  and  warlike  amusements, 
to  give  themselves  much  concern  on  the  subject  of  learning; 
they  had  no  idea  that  any  kind  of  knowledge,  to  be  derived  from 
books,  was  requisite  to  enable  them  to  fill  the  eminent  stations 
they  occupied;  they,  therefore,  left  the  pursuits  gf  literature 
entirely  to  the  dignitaries  of  the  church,  who  alone  were  thought 
to  have  any  occasion  for  learning;  and  they  were  interested  in 
not  removing  the  veil  of  ignorance,  that  they  might  maintain 
that  influence  they  had,  unfortunately  for  the  human  family,  ob- 
tained and  exercised.  About  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  centu- 
ry, alight  burst  through  the  surrounding  gloom;  feeble,  indeed, 
at  first,  but  gradually  extending,  until  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  when  learning  revived,  and  found  patrons  and 
protectors  in  the  munificent  house  of  Medici,  particularly  in  Cos- 
mo dc  Medici^  and  his  grandson  Lorenzo,  the  magnificent.  About 
this  time,  also,  the  art  of  printing  was  invented,  which,  aided  by 
the  liberal  principles  introduced  by  the  reformation,  contributed 
to  the  general  und  rapid  diffusion  of  learning.  Since  then  it 
has  continued  to  flourish  in  Europe;  and  having  been  trans- 
planted into  this  free  and  happy  country,  it  has  found  a  conge- 
nial soil,  where  it  requires  only  proper  cultivation  to  bring  it  to 
perfect  maturity. 

In  the  succeeding  pages,  we  design  to  present  a  concise  view 

*  The  fourth  council  of  Carthage  held  A.  D.  398. 


INTRODUCTION.  x|jj 

of  the  progress  of  literature.  The  subject  embraces,  it  is  true, 
an  extensive  field,  one  which  we  have  not  the  vanity  to  suppose 
ourselves  capable  of  exploring  and  fully  unfolding.  We  do  not 
hope,  nor  do  we  aim  to  attract,  by  any  novelty  of  matter  or  man- 
ner— we  design  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  what  we  consider  an 
interesting  subject,  more  particularly  for  the  benefit  of  those  who 
have  neither  leisure  nor  opportunity  to  examine  the  subject  more 
at  large. 


•if& 


SKETCHES 


OF  THE 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 


, , »   *  o «» 0 > ^  •  •     •• 
» * '  ••  •*•'*** 

CHAPTER  I. 

Hieroglyphic  and  Alphabetic  writing.     Literature  of  the  Egyptians, 
Hebrews  and  other  eastern  nations. 

THE  subject  of  alphabetic  writing,  that  most  important  in- 
vention, to  which  we  are  indebted  for  the  preservation  of  all 
learning,  has  given  rise  to  much  able,  learned  and  interesting 
discussion.  It  has  employed  the  pens  of  many  profound  anti- 
quaries, whose  peculiar  province  it  is,  to  penetrate  the  veil  that 
covers  the  transactions  of  past  ages:  but,  notwithstanding  all 
their  researches  and  ingenious  speculations,  it  is  unsettled  among 
the  learned,  where  and  when  it  originated — whether  it  is  of  di- 
vine origin,  or  a  wonderful  effort  of  human  ingenuity  and  inven- 
tion. 

In  a  literary  point  of  view,  writing  is  the  most  important  in- 
vention with  which  we  are  acquainted;  as  we  are  thus  enabled 
to  communicate  our  thoughts,  our  feelings  and  impressions,  to 
each  other,  when  absent,  as  well  as  when  present,  and  to  trans* 
mit  to  posterity  the  record  of  the  great  events  which,  from  time 
to  time,  agitate  the  natural,  moral  and  political  world,  as  well 
as  important  discoveries  and  improvements  in  arts  and  science. 
Previous  to  the  invention  of  letters,  the  knowledge  of  the  historj 
of  nations  depended  upon  the  frail  memory  of  man,  and  was 


16  HISTORY    OF    LITERATURE. 

communicated,  from  generation  to  generation,  by  tradition,  or 
by  means  of  hieroglyphics,  which  were  known  only  to  a  few. 
In  consequence  of  this  want  of  written  records,  we  are  entirely 
ignorant  of  that  race  of  people,  who  once  inhabited  the  northern 
portion  of  the  vast  continent  of  America,  and  whose  remains  are 
at  once  a  striking  monument  of  their  power,  and  of  the  vanity 
of  all  earthly  things.  Of  the  purposes  for  which  these  mounds 
or  pyramids  were  erected,  we  are  left  entirely  to  conjecture. 

Writing  was,  at  first,  in  hieroglyphics,  or  by  representations  of 
material  objects ;  thus,  the  figure  of  a  man  was  used  to  express  a 
man — the  figure  of  a  tree  to  express  a  tree,  and  so  on  through 
all  the  productions  of  nature.  Thus  also,  if  it  were  meant  to 
intimate,  that  a  man  h;>d  been  slain  by  a  wild  beast,  the  figure 
of  a  man  extended  on  the  earth,  and  the  animal  standing  over 
hirt-.,  ••vould  be  delineated.  The  origin  of  hieroglyphic  writing 
has  been  generally  ascribed  to  the  Egyptians;  but,  whether  they 
are  entitled  to  the  honor  of  the  invention  or  not,  their  priests 
•deserve  the  credit  of  forming  it  into  something  like  a  regular 
system,  by  means  of  which,  they  were  enabled  to  trace  the  con- 
ceptions and  operations  of  the  mind,  so  as  to  be  perfectly  intelli- 
gible to  each  other.  The  Egyptian  priests  were  a  separate 
class  of  men,  set  apart  for  regulating  and  conducting  reli- 
gious ceremonies;  they  had  acquired  the  reputation  of  superior 
wisdom,  at  a  time  when  knowledge  was  extremely  limited,  and, 
with  the  ambition  natural  to  man,  they  used  every  means  that 
ingenuity  could  devise,  to  increase  their  influence  with  the  peo- 
ple. They  were  closely  united  among  themselves;  a  singleness 
of  object  and  design  governed  and  directed  their  actions,  and 
the  sacredness  of  character  with  which  they  were  invested,  ena- 
bled them  to  accomplish  all  they  desired — obtaining  an  unbound- 
ed influence  with  every  order  of  society,  from  the  prince  to  the 
peasant.  In  the  retirement  of  their  temples,  they  pursued  those 
researches  which  rendered  them  celebrated  in  other  lands;  but 
the  particular  fruits  of  their  studies  were  placed  beyond  the 
reach  of  common  ken,  by  the  use  of  hieroglyphic  characters, 
known  only  to  themselves,  or  such  as  they  thought  proper  to  ini- 
tiate into  a  knowledge  of  their  mysteries.  On  the  existing  mo- 
numents of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  which  strew  the  plains  of 
Egypt,  hieroglyphic  characters  abound,  and  still  continue  to 
attract  attention,  and  exercise  the  ingenuitv  of  travellers.  On 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


17 


the  temples  and  other  ruins  of  Luxore,  they  look  as  if  but  re- 
cently cut.  "You  see  them,"  says  the  author  of  Scenes  and  Im- 
pressions in  Egypt  and  Italy,  "as  Cambyses  saw  them,  when  he 
staid  his  chariot  wheels  to  gaze  up  at  them;  and  the  Persian 
war  cry  ceased  before  these  acknowledged  symbols  of  the  sacred 
element  of  fire." 

Hieroglyphic  writing  not  only  prevailed  among  several  an- 
oient  nations  of  the  old  world,  but  was  even  practised  by  the 
Mexicans,  when  their  country  was  invaded  by  the  Spaniards,  as 
appears  from  the  fact,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast,  in  order 
to  give  information  to  Montezuma  of  the  arrival  of  strangers, 
sent  him  white  cotton  cloths,  on  which  were  delineated  figures 
of  ships,  horses,  artillery  and  whatever  else  they  had  observed 
remarkable.*  It  is  even  practised  at  the  present  day  among  the 
aborigines  of  America,  as  is  well  known  to  those  who  have  paid 
any  attention  to  their  manners  and  customs.  The  curious  will 
find  an  illustration  of  this  fact,  by  consulting  "Long's  Expedition 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains,"  where  is  preserved  a  copy  of  a  hiero- 
glyphic record  of  an  Indian  battle,  as  delineated  on  a  buffalo 
skin.t 

Hieroglyphic  writing  is  a  difficult,  imperfect  and  unsatisfac- 
tory mode  of  recording  events,  and  the  process  of  delineation 
laborious.  Although,  in  a  certain  degree,  it  answered  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  was  designed,  the  difficulties  attending  it  must 
have  induced  those  who  practised  it,  to  study  some  more  easy 
and  expeditious  method  of  communicating  their  ideas;  hence, 
we  presume,  one  improvement  succeeded  another,  until  the  sys- 
tem of  alphabetic  writing  was  invented  and  adopted.  The 
Egyptian  priests,  however,  long  after  the  invention  of  letters, 
continued  the  use  of  hieoroglyphics,  to  conceal  their  learning  and 
the  mysteries  of  the  priesthood,  from  the  profane  eyes  of  the  un 
initiated,  in  order  to  preserve  and  increase  their  authority. 

With  regard  to  the  origin  of  alphabetic  characters,  so  con 
trary  and  insufficient  is  the  evidence,  that  it  is  impossible  to  fix 
the  era  of  the  invention,  or  ascertain  the  inventors  who  are  thus 
deprived  of  the  honors  justly  due  to  so  important  a  discovery. 
The  invention  has  been  ascribed  to  different  nations — the  Egyp- 
tians, the  Phoenicians,  the  Hebrews,  the  Chaldeans,  the  Indian?. 

*  Robertson's  History  of  America,  vol.  1,  p.  396, 
T  Long's  Expedition,  vol.  l,p.  159.,  296,440. 


jg  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

the  Arabians,  have  each  set  up  their  claims,  and  each  have  had 
their  advocates,  who  have  urged  their  respective  pretensions 
with  great  ingenuity,  learning  and  ability. 

The  Greeks  ascribed  the  invention  to  Cadmus,  a  Phoenician, 
who  first  made  known  the  use  of  the  alphabet  in  Greece ;  it  then 
consisted  of  but  sixteen  letters,  the  rest  having  been  added  at 
subsequent  and  distant  periods.  Those  who  urge  the  claims  of 
the  Hebrews,  say,  that  the  Greeks  confounded  the  Phoenicians 
with  the  Hebrews,  in  consequence  of  similarity  of  language, 
and  that  when  they  spoke  of  the  Phoenician  alphabet,  they  really 
meant  the  Hebrew.  We  think  there  is  but  little  ground  for  the 
opinion,  that  Cadmus  was  the  inventor  of  alphabetic  writing;  the 
honor  of  having  accommodated  the  Phoenician  or  Hebrew  cha- 
racters to  the  Greek  language,  is  all  that  he  may  fairly  be  con- 
sidered entitled  to;  and  this  is  no  small  honor — it  shows  him  to 
have  been  one  who  possessed  at  least  some  of  the  learning  of  the 
times,  and  was  willing  to  share  it  with  others.  The  Egyp- 
tians, Phoenicians  and  Chaldeans,  were  neighboring  nations,  dif- 
fering but  little  in  their  manners,  customs  and  religion,  and  very 
similar  in  language.  Their  intercourse  with  each  other  favor- 
ed the  reciprocal  communication  of  the  knowledge  possessed  by 
each;  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  decide  which  received  the  know- 
ledge of  letters  from  the  other.  To  the  Egyptian  god  Thotk, 
who  is  the  same  with  the  Phoenician  Thaut,  who  is  also  the 
Hermes  of  the  Greeks  and  Mercury  of  the  Romans,  the  Phoenician 
historian  Sanchoniathon  ascribed  the  invention  of  letters.  To 
him  also  it  is  ascribed  by  Diodorus  Siculus. 

The  claim  of  the  Indians  is  thought  by  some  modern  writers, 
to  be  entitled  to  great  weight;  but  they  have  probably  rested 
their  opinions  more  upon  the  proud  claims  of  the  Hindoo  writers 
to  high  antiquity,  than  any  strict  and  close  examination  of  a 
subject  of  so  much  intricacy.  The  Sanscrit,  a  polished  and  ele- 
gant tongue,  but  which  has  now  ceased  to  be  a  living  language, 
is  supposed  to  be  the  root  of  almost  every  dialect,  from  the  Per- 
sian gulf  to  the  Chinese  sea,  thirty-two  of  which  have  been  re- 
cognised and  distinguished  by  the  missionaries  of  Serampore. 
The  Hindoos  assert,  that  their  ancient  books  describe  the  Egyp- 
tians and  other  ancient  nations,  as  seeking  amongst  them  that 
Information  their  own  country  could  not  afford. 

This  uncertainty,  with  regard  to  the  invention  of  alphabetic 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^ 

characters,  by  any  particular  nation,  has  induced  the  opinion, 
that  it  is  not  a  human  invention,  but  of  divine  origin,  and  was 
delivered  by  God  himself  to  his  chosen  people.  The  opinion  is 
supported  by  the  following  arguments:  1st.  The  high  antiquity 
of  the  use  of  letters;  the  Hebrew  characters  having  existed 
when  Moses  composed  the  Pentateuch,  (1450  years  before 
Christ.)  at  which  time  it  appears  they  were  in  as  perfect  a  state, 
as  in  the  days  of  Jewish  splendor  and  glory.  2d.  The  simila- 
rity between  the  various  alphabets  of  different  nations,  which, 
for  the  most  part,  are  the  same  in  order,  power  and  even  form  of 
their  letters,  with  the  Hebrew.  3d.  The  complete  want  of  al- 
phabetic characters  among  those  nations  which  have  been  cut 
off  from  all  communication  with  the  ancient  civilized  world. 
4th.  The  difficulty  of  the  invention,  considering  the  rude  state 
of  society  at  the  time  it  must  have  been  accomplished.*  The 
arguments  here  stated,  if  they  are  not  conclusive  as  to  the  ori- 
gin of  alphabetic  writing,  are  at  least  plausible.  One  thing, 
however,  we  think  may  be  regarded  as  certain,  from  various 
passages  in  the  sacred  volume,  namely,  that  alphabetic  writing 
existed  before  the  delivery  of  the  law  to  Moses;  and  if  delivered 
by  God  himself,  must  have  been  delivered  long  antecedent  to 
this  time.  Thus  we  find  in  the  17th  chapter  of  Exodus,  "the 
Lord  said  unto  Moses,  write  this  for  a  memorial  in  a  book;" 
which  direction  was  given  before  the  law  was  delivered  from 
Mount  Sinai,  and  of  course  implies  that  writing  was  known  be- 
fore that  time,  the  period  at  which  its  original  delivery  to  man 
is  assigned  by  some  who  contend  for  its  divine  origin.  Although 
it  is  probable,  that  alphabetic  writing  is  of  divine  origin,  and 
delivered  to  some  of  the  descendants  of  Adam,  long  before  the 
time  of  Moses,  yet,  as  we  find  no  mention  made  of  this  circum- 
stance in  the  sacred  volume,  the  oldest  record  extant,  we  incline 
to  the  opinion,  that  it  is  of  human  invention,  and  was  a  natural 
consequence  arising  from  the  improvement  of  hieroglyphic  or 
picture  writing;  and  that  Moses,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
"learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,"  carried  it  with 
him  out  of  Egypt. 

Letters  were  originally  written  from  the  right  hand  towards 
the  left,  and  without  any  of  the  stops  and  divisions  practised  in 

*  Frtin.  Ency.  art.  Alphabet 


%0  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

modern  writing.  This  mode  prevailed  among  the  Assyrians, 
Phoenicians,  Hebrews,  Chaldeans  and  Arabians,  and  is  still  prac- 
tised among  the  nations  of  the  East.  This  mode  also  obtained, 
originally,  among  the  Greeks,  as  it  is  very  natural  it  should,  if 
they  received  their  knowledge  of  alphabetic  writing  from  the 
Phoenicians.  They  afterwards  adopted  the  method  of  writing 
from  right  to  left,  and  from  left  to  right,  alternately,  which  con- 
tinued until  about  the  time  of  Solon,  when  the  method  of  writ- 
ing from  left  to  right  was  finally  adopted.  The  Greek  alphabet, 
as  before  remarked,  is  undoubtedly  of  Phoenician  origin,  and 
consisted  of  but  sixteen  letters;  to  these,  Palemedes,  son  of 
Nauplius,  king  of  Euboea,  about  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war? 
added  four,  and  the  poet  Simonides,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
Hipparchus,  the  son  of  Pisistratus,  added  four  more.  From  the 
Greek  alphabet,  all  the  alphabets  in  use  in  modern  Europe,  have 
been  derived. 

The  materials  first  used  for  writing,  were  the  leaves  or  inner 
bark  of  trees,  afterwards  linen,  and  tables  covered  with  wax. 
About  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  paper  first  began  to  be 
manufactured  from  the  Egyptian  plant  called  papyrus,  (Cyperm 
papyrus.}  This  plant  has  several  coats,  one  above  another,  like 
the  coats  of  an  onion,  which  being  separated  by  a  sharp  instru- 
ment, and  moistened  with  water,  were  put  under  a  press  and 
afterwards  dried  in  the  sun.  Besides  these  several  prepara- 
tions, parchment,  made  of  the  skins  of  goats,  was  also  used,, 
which  continued  in  use,  until  the  invention  of  paper  from  cotton 
by  the  Arabians,  A.  D.  706.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  paper 
manufactories  were  established  in  the  Christian  kingdom  of  Cas- 
tile; and  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  knowledge  of  the  art 
found  its  way  into  Italy,  after  which  time  paper,  manufactured 
from  cotton  and  linen,  came  into  general  use.  The  long  time 
which  elapsed  before  the  introduction  of  paper  among  the 
Christians  of  Europe,  affords  a  strong  evidence  of  the  low  state 
of  learning  in  the  Christian  world.  Had  there  been  much  zeal 
in  the  cause,  a  discovery  so  valuable  would  not  have  been  so 
long  neglected ;  for  such  was  the  scarcity  of  materials  for  writ- 
ing, that  many  valuable  ancient  manuscripts  were  erased,  to 
make  way  for  the  puerile  productions  of  monkish  superstition. 

The  ancient  form  of  a  book,  was  usually  that  of  a  roll,  form- 
ed of  several  leaves  of  parchment,  or  paper  made  of  papyrus., 

-^    '-:  »« 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  IftftK, 

iustened  together.  When  a  book  or  volume  was  finished,  a 
of  wood,  bone  or  horn,  was  affixed  to  it  on  the  outside  for  secu- 
rity, as  well  as  ornament,  when  the  book  was  rolled.  The  cus- 
tom of  writing  in  continued  sheets,  and  putting  them  up  in  a  roll, 
was  practised  by  almost  all  nations  of  antiquity,  differing,  how- 
over,  in  this,  that  in  some  tbc  writing  was  continued  across  the 
sheets,  while  in  others  the  sheets  were  divided  into  columns. 
Among  the  Romans  the  method  of  dividing  a  book  into  pages, 
like  our  books,  was  not  practised  until  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar, 
who  adopted  it  on  his  letters  to  the  senate.  The  internal  ar- 
rangement of  books  varied  also  in  different  countries  and  at  dif- 
ferent periods.  At  first  letters  were  only  separated  by  lines, 
and  it  was  long  before  they  were  separated  into  individual  words; 
on  which  account  the  utmost  care  was  necessary  to  guard 
against  errors.  The  Jewish  writers  never  divided  a  word,  so  as 
to  place  a  part  in  'one  line,  and  a  part  in  another — they,  there- 
fore, enlarged  some  of  their  letters,  so  as  to  fill  up  the  blank 
spaces;  these  letters  are  distinguished  by  the  name  of  final  let- 
ters. The  division  of  the  sacred  books,  into  chapters  and  verses, 
is  a  modern  invention.* 

Egypt  is  said  to  be  the  source  whence  we  have  derived  all 
our  knowledge;  the  spot  whence  learning  and  science  was  dif- 
fused over  Europe.  Egypt  was  long  celebrated  for  the  uninter- 
rupted enjoyment  of  peace,  so  necessary  to  the  prosperity  of  a 
country,  in  the  accumulation  of  wealth  and  all  the  conveniences 
of  life,  and  so  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  the  peaceful  arts, 
and  the  different  branches  of  learning.  Their  system  of  gov- 
ernment, although  monarchical  and  hereditary,  was  well  devised 
to  render  the  people  contented  and  happy.  Their  princes,  so 
far  from  being  arbitrary  and  despotic,  were  under  equal,  if  not 
greater  restraint,  than  their  subjects,  arising  from  that  salutary 
law  which  subjected  their  conduct  to  close  examination  after 
death,  and  a  denial  of  the  rights  of  sepulture  and  of  funeral 
honors,  if  they  were  found  guilty  of  any  thing  that  would  re- 
flect dishonor  on  their  memory.!  This  salutary  regulation, 
maintained  by  the  priests,  and  supported  by  the  force  of  public 
opinion,  operated  as  a  powerful  restraint  upon  the  abuse  of 
power,  and  established  that  sort  of  connexion  between  prince 

*  Adams'  Rom.  Ant.,  Rennet's  Rom.  Ant.,  Brown's  Ant,  of  the  Jews, 
i  Rol.Anc.  Hist.  Yol.l,  p.  157,171. 


oo  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

aaa  people,  calculated  to  inspire  mutual  confidence — a  state  of 
things  seldom  existing  where  the  sovereign  is  absolute,  and  un~ 
restrained  by  written  laws. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  reputation  of  the  Egyptians,  as  re- 
gards literature  and  science,  which  was  not  confined  to  the  coun- 
tries watered  by  the  Nile,  but  extended  into  more  remote  and 
distant  quarters,  the  state  of  learning  among  them,  as  a  people, 
has  been  much  overrated;  so  much  are  we  in  the  habit  of  re- 
ceiving as  true,  that  which  has  long  been  asserted  without  con- 
tradiction. The  mass  of  the  people  were  not  more  enlightened 
in  the  ways  of  knowledge,  than  some  of  their  neighbors,  who 
have  never  acquired  so  high  a  reputation.  Whatever  learning 
was  among  them,  was  confined  to  the  priests,  by  whom  it  was 
guarded  with  scrupulous  care,  as  unfit  to  be  communicated  to 
vulgar  minds.  By  this  concealment  of  their  knowledge,  they 
were  enabled  to  maintain  that  influence  over  the  people  they 
had  long  exercised,  and  which  they  were  unwilling  to  lose. 
Priestcraft,  in  all  ages,  has  been  the  same,  seeking  to  perpetuate 
ignorance,  rather  than  remove  the  film  from  the  mental  eye. 
Notwithstanding  the  fame  they  have  acquired,  and  their  boast 
of  being  the  inventors  of  alphabetic  writing,  no  works  of  Egyp- 
tian philosophers,  poets  or  historian?,  have  come  down  to  us,  by 
which  we  can  estimate  the  extent  of  their  philosophical  re- 
searches, their  critical  acumen,  their  taste  or  skill  in  poetry,  the 
style  of  their  oratory,  or  their  historical  compositions.  What- 
ever works  of  literature  and  science  they  may  have  possessed, 
have  perished,  and  their  authors  are  no  more  remembered,  than 
the  founders  of  pyramids,  so  long  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world,  and  still  the  admiration  of  travellers  who  stop  to  con- 
template  these  stupendous  monuments  of  human  labor  and  in- 
dustry. The  only  information  we  possess,  with  regard  to  the 
literary  attainments  of  the  Egyptians,  their  knowledge  of  the 
arts  and  sciences,  is  derived  from  the  sacred  writers,  and  the 
imperfect  accounts  of  the  Grecian  historians  and  philosophers, 
who  were  induced,  by  the  high  reputation  of  their  priests,  to 
travel  to  that  country  in  pursuit  of  knowledge.  Thus  Pythago- 
ras anfl  Plato,  both  celebrated  as  philosophers,  were  initiated 
into  all  the  learning  of  the  priesthood,  on  which  they  set  a  high 
value,  and  subsequently  taught  in  their  respective  schools  of 
Athens  and  Crotona, 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  23 

The  Egyptian  priests,  in  addition  to  their  reputation  for  learn- 
ing, were  distinguished  for  extraordinary  sanctity,  which  ob- 
tained for  them  a  great  influence  with  the  people,  and  a  consi- 
derable share  in  the  management  of  civil  affairs.  At  fixed  hours 
they  celebrated  the  praises  of  their  gods;  in  the  intervals  of 
which,  their  time  was  employed  in  mathematical  studies,  or  sci- 
entific pursuits.  They  concealed  the  mysteries  of  religion  and 
learning  from  the  common  people,  by  means  of  that  hierogly- 
phic, or  symbolic  method  of  writing,  we  have  already  mentioned. 
The  philosophy  of  the  Egyptians,  as  taught  by  their  priests,  con- 
sisted of  two  kinds — the  one  addressed  to  the  common  people, 
which  was  called  the  exoteric,  and  contained  the  principles  of 
their  public  religious  creed ;  the  other,  which  was  communicated 
to  a  select  number  intended  for  the  priesthood,  in  a  secret  and 
mysterious  manner,  was  called  the  esoteric.  The  exoteric  doc- 
trines of  philosophy  or  religion,  inculcated  the  most  absurd  and 
irrational  superstition,  and  the  worship  not  only  of  gods,  heroe? 
and  eminent  men,  but  different  animals,  and  even  the  production? 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Juvenal,  in  his  15th  satire,  thus 
speaks  of  the  Egyptian  superstitions: 

Quis  nescit,  volusi  Bythenice,  qualia  clemens 
yEgyptus  portenta  colat?  Crocodilon  adorat 
Pars  hcec;  illapavet  saturam  serpentibus  Ibin. 
Effigies  sacri  nitetaurea  Circopitheci, 
Xfimidio  magicae  resonant  ubi  Memnone  chorda?. 
Atque  vetus  Thebe  centum  jacet  obruta  portis. 
Illic  caeruleos.hic  piscim  fluminis,  illic 
Oppidatota  canem  venerantur,  nemo  Dianam; 
Porrum  et  cepe  nefas  violare,  ac  frangere  morsu. 
O  sanctas  gentes,  quibushoec  nascuntur  in  horti^ 
JXumina, 

Who  knows  not  to  what  monstrous  gods,  my  friend 
The  mad  inhabitants  of  Egypt  bend? 
While  these  the  Ibis  as  a  god  enshrine, 
Those  think  the  crocodile  alone  divine; 
Others  where  Thebes'  vast  ruins  strew  t'ie ground, 
And  shatter'd  Memnon  yields  a  magic  *ound, 
Set  up  a  brute  of  uncouth  shape 
And  bow  before  the  image  of  an  ape! 
Thousands  regard  the  hound  with  holy  fear, 
Not  one  Diana;  and  it 's  dangerous  here, 
To  violate  an  onion,  or  to  stain 
The  sanctity  of  leeks,  with  tooth  profane. 
Oh  holy  nations!  sacro-sanct abodes 
Where  every  garden  propagates  its  gods. 

Giffbrd, 


,.£  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Doctrines  so  absurd  and  irrational,  were  not  calculated  to  eu 

* 

large  the  mind,  elevate  the  feelings,  or  give,  indeed,  any  idea  ot 
that  supreme  intelligence  which  governs  the  world.  The  esoteric. 
or  secret  doctrine,  inculcated  a  much  more  rational  philosophy, 
although  much  at  variance  with  the  sublimer  systems  of  modern 
times.  It  taught  that  matter  was  the  first  principle  of  all  tilings, 
and  that  before  the  regular  forms  of  nature  arose,  an  eternal 
chaos  had  existed,  which  contained,  in  a  state  of  darkness  and 
confusion,  all  the  materials  of  future  heings.  Besides  this  ma- 
terial principle,  it  admitted  also,  an  active  principle,  or  intelli- 
gent power,  eternally  united  with  the  chaotic  mass,  by  whose 
energy  the  elements  were  separated  and  bodies  formed,  and 
which  continually  presided  over  the  universe,  and  is  the  efficient 
cause  of  all  effects.  With  respect  to  the  human  soul,  although 
their  opinions  are  differently  represented,  it  is  generally  agreed, 
that  the  priests  taught  that  it  was  immortal;  and  whilst  some 
writers  assert,  that  they  believed  and  taught  the  doctrine  of  the 
transmigration  of  souls,  others  maintain  that  they  inculcated 
the  more  fanciful  notion,  that  the  souls  of  good  men,  after  wan- 
dering for  a  time  among  the  stars,  were  permitted  to  return  to 
the  society  of  the  gods.  The  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of 
souls,  taught  in  the  Pythagorean  school,  was  no  doubt  received 
from  the  Egyptian  priests.* 

The  Egyptians,  at  a  very  early  period,  possessed  considerable 
skill  in  some  species  of  manufactures;  as  we  learn,  that  even  in 
the  days  of  the  Patriarchs,  they  wore  fine  linen  and  golden  or- 
naments; Joseph  is  described  as  being  thus  arrayed;  and  the 
sacerdotal  garments  of  the  Hebrew  priesthood,  and  the  inner 
hangings  of  the  tabernacle,  were  made  of  fine  linen  dyed,  and 
embroidered  with  gold.  Husbandmen,  shepherds  and  artificers, 
formed  three  classes  held  in  great  esteem ;  and  as  no  profession  was 
regarded  as  mean,  wVich  in  any  manner  conduced  to  the  comfort* 
and  conveniences  of  Ttfe,  the  arts  received  that  encouragement 
which  raised  some  of  tbsm  to  a  considerable  degree  of  perfec- 
tion, notwithstanding  that  remarkable  law  which  compelled  a 
son  to  pursue  the  occupation  of  his  father.  This  law,  although 
it  enabled  artists  to  become  more  expert  in  employments  which 
they  exercised  from  their  infancy,  nevertheless  operated  as  i\ 

ist,  of  Philo*.  vol.  1.  p.  M.  ftseq..  RoH.  Anr  His,  vol.  1,p;  163. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^ 

oarher  to  invention,  by  cramping  the  genius,  and  confining  it  to 
a  single  object.  Rollin  calls  it  a  wholsome  institution,  which 
extinguished  irregular  ambition,  and  taught  every  man  to  sit 
down  contented  with  his  own  condition,  without  aspiring  to  one 
more  elevated,  from  interest,  vain  glory  or  levity.  Accustomed 
as  we  have  been,  to  reverence  the  opinions  of  learned  and  dis- 
tinguished men,  we  beg  leave  to  dissent  from  an  opinion  as  un- 
philosophical  as  unwise.  We  can  see  nothing  wholesome  in  an 
institution,  which  confines  a  man  to  one  employment,  to  the  pur- 
suit of  a  single  object  during  a  whole  life.  Had  such  a  law  been 
adopted  in  all  nations,  where  would  have  been  the  march  of 
improvement?  Where  would  have  been  the  great  and  manifold 
improvements  and  discoveries  which  have  been  made  in  the  va- 
rious departments  of  the  arts  and  sciences  ?  Were  the  most  learned 
and  enlightened  of  the  ancient  philosophers  permitted  to  revisit 
this  world,  the  wonderful  changes  which  literature,  science  and 
art  have  made  in  its  condition,  would  strike  him  with  wonder 
and  astonishment.  The  application  of  steam  to  the  various  pur- 
poses of  commerce,  manufactures  and  domestic  economy,  would 
alone  be  sufficient  to  establish,  not  only  the  propriety,  but  ne- 
cessity, of  permitting  the  free  exercise  of  genius,  and  prove  the 
impolicy  of  the  law  of  Egypt. 

The  architecture  of  the  Egyptians  was  massy  and  solid,  but  it 
had  no  beauty  of  design,  or  elegance  of  execution,  to  attract 
the  admiration  of  beholders;  it  was  not  to  be  compared  with 
the  light  and  tasteful  style  of  Grecian  architecture.  From  this 
censure  we  ought,  perhaps,  to  except  their  obelisks,  which  are 
quadrangular  pillars,  or  pyramids  of  stone,  covered  with  hiero- 
glyphical  inscriptions.  Two  of  these  were  conveyed  from  Egypt 
at  great  expense,  and  now  adorn  the  city  of  Rome.  The  ruins 
of  ancient  Thebes,  the  city  of  a  hundred  gates,  present  the  most 
strking  monuments  of  Egyptian  architecture,  wherewith  to  gra- 
tify the  curiosity  of  the  traveller  and  the  antiquary — monuments 
covered  with  hieroglyphics  "which  look  alike  upon  the  learned 
and  unlearned,  with  a  bright  and  mocking  distinctness,  awaken- 
ing curiosity,  exercising  the  fancy,  but,  after  all,  defying  the  un- 
derstanding." In  what  is  called  the  fine  arts,  sculpture  and 
painting,  if  they  possessed  genius  and  skill  in  execution,  they 
were  destitute  of  taste;  their  statues  were  without  due  propor- 
tion, grace  or  elegance  of  figure ;  they  were  in  no  degree  worthy 

4 


2$  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

to  be  placed  in  competition  with  the  finished  productions  of  Phi- 
dias and  Praxitelles.  Their  paintings  were  in  no  better  style 
of  execution  than  their  statuary,  nor  does  history  record  the 
names  of  any  distinguished  painters. 

However  deficient  we  may  regard  the  taste  of  the  Egyptians 
in  architecture,  sculpture  and  painting,  they  possessed  consider- 
able knowledge  of  many  of  the  physical  sciences,  and  to  them 
we  are  indebted,  at  least,  for  the  principles,  upon  which  they  are 
founded.  Geometry,  now  so  important  a  branch  of  mathema- 
tics, and  so  essential  to  constitute  an  accomplished  scholar,  ori- 
ginated with  them,  and  was,  at  first,  nothing  more  than  the  simr 
ple  process  of  measuring  lands  and  establishing  their  bounda- 
ries, after  the  landmarks  had  been  swept  away  by  the  inunda- 
tions of  the  Nile.  From  such  simple  beginnings  has  resulted  a 
science,  which  has  become,  in  the  progress  of  society,  highly  im- 
portant to  mankind,  particularly  to  astronomers,  architects,  en- 
gineers, and  others,  who,  without  its  knowledge,  would  be  una*- 
ble  to  turn  many  of  their  discoveries  and  observations  to  advai> 
tage. 

The  science  of  astronomy,  that  sublime  science  by  which  w<e 
are  enabled  to  read  the  Creator  in  the  glories  of  the  heavens;  to 
discover  the  order  and  harmony  which  pervade  the  motions  of' 
the  heavenly  bodies;  to  ascertain  their  respective  stations  and 
revolutions,  is  supposed  by  some,  to  have  originated  with 
the  Egyptians,  whilst  others  attribute  it  to  the  Chaldeans.  Whe- 
ther it  originated  with  the  former  or  not,  it  is  on  all  hands 
agreed,  that  they  made  many  important  discoveries  in  this  inte- 
resting science.  Placed  under  a  serene  sky,  and  in  open  plains-, 
where  nothing  intercepted  their  view  of  the  heavens,  they  wers 
enabled  to  make  more  extensive  and  profound  researches  into 
the  nature  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  ascertain  with  tolerable 
correctness,  their  respective  motions.  They  are  said  to  have 
understood  the  cause  of  eclipses,  and  even  the  method  of  cal- 
culating them;  they  divided  the  year  into  twelve  months,  which 
they  afterwards  computed  at  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days. 
The  rudiments  of  our  present  system  of  astronomy,  Pythagoras 
derived  from  Egypt.  He  taught  it  in  his  school  at  Crotona;  but 
during  the  many  centuries  of  mental  darkness  which  pervaded 
Europe,  it  was  neglected  and  forgotten,  until  revived  by  the  ge- 
nius of  Copernicus. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  27 

The  study  of  astronomy,  sublime  and  beautiful  as  it  is,  gave 
rise  to  the  science  of  astrology,  (if  science  it  may  be  called,) 
which  professes  to  discover  certain  connexions  subsisting  be- 
tween the  motions  and  relative  positions  of  the  celestial  bodies, 
and  the  affairs  of  this  globe;  and  taught  that  the  rising  and  set- 
ting, the  conjunctions  and  oppositions  of  the  planets,  exercised 
a  powerful  influence  over  the  destinies  of  man.  This  science  was 
practised  by  the  Chaldean,  as  well  as  Egyptian  philosophers,  but 
was  carried  to  the  greatest  extent  by  the  former,  by  whom  it  was 
held  in  the  highest  estimation,  and  regarded  as  a  science  most 
worthy  of  study  and  cultivation.  Astrology  afterwards  travelled 
to  Rome,  where  even  the  learned  and  enlightened  Cicero,  rank- 
ed among  his  friends  two  celebrated  astrologers;  and  so  great  a 
hold  did  it  subsequently  take  upon  the  minds  of  men,  that  it  was 
condemned  by  the  Christian  fathers  and  councils,  as  the  inven- 
tion of  the  devil.  Astrology,  however  delusive  in  itself,  has 
been  usefulin  promoting  the  knowledge  of  astronomy,  as  alche- 
my, its  kindred  science,  in  endeavoring  to  discover  the  philoso- 
pher's stone,  and  the  elixir  of  life,  has  been  the  cause  of  many 
important  discoveries  in  chemistry. 

The  origin  of  medicine  as  a  science,  is  also  ascribed  to  the 
Egyptians;  but,  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus,  instead  of  pre- 
scribing according  to  his  own  judgment  and  experience,  every 
physician  was  obliged  to  follow  a  certain  written  systom,  and  ifj 
in  adhering  to  it,  he  proved  unsuccessful,  he  was  free  from 
blame;  if  he  ventured  to  depart  from  it,  though  the  patient 
recovered,  the  physician  forfeited  his  life.  By  adhering  to  a 
system  so  perfectly  absurd  and  ridiculous,  no  improvement 
could  be  expected,  and  no  man,  however  great  his  talents,  could 
ever  hope  to  be  distinguished  from  the  crowd  of  empirics,  who 
"mposed  upon  the  ignorance  of  the  multitude. 

From  what  we  are  able  to  gather  from  the  works  of  those  who 
treat  of  the  ancient  history  of  the  Egyptians,  it  may  be  remark 
ed  with  justice,  that  with  all  their  high  pretensions  to  literature, 
they  suffered  themselves  to  be  deceived  by  interested  men  under 
the  sacred  garb  of  the  priesthood,  while  gross  superstition,  in 
matters  of  religion,  by  enslaving  the  minds  of  men,  prevented 
them  from  following  the  dictates  of  reason. 

The  children  of  Israel  were  the  chosen  and  favored  people  of 
God,  and  were  essentially  different  in  manners,  customs  and  re- 


2#  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

ligion  from  those  by  whom  they  were  surrounded.  Whilst  every 
other  nation  and  people,  were  enveloped  in  the  clouds  of  idola- 
tary,  and  were  offering  sacrifices  to  gain  the  favour  of  unknown 
Gods,  they  alone  possessed  a  knowledge  of  the  true  God.  Du- 
ring their  long  sojourn  in  the  land  of  Egypt,  they  kept  them- 
selves a  distinct  people,  observing  the  peculiar  customs  and 
practising  that  system  of  religion,  which  had  been  preserved 
for  ages,  uncorrupted  by  the  idolatrous  and  superstitious  wor- 
ship perpetually  before  their  eyes.  The  same  striking  circum- 
stances marked  their  character  during  their  wanderings,  and 
after  their  final  establishment  in  the  land  of  promise,  when 
their  nation  grew  into  a  prosperous  and  flourishing  empire,  un- 
der the  sway  of  David  and  Solomon.  At  the  present  day,  the 
same  peculiarity  of  customs  and  religion  distinguish  this  extra- 
ordinary people,  whether  they  live  under  a  free  or  despotic,  a 
Christian,  mahometan  or  pagan  government — they  are  the  living 
monuments  of  the  truth  of  the  holy  writings,  and  of  that  inspi- 
ration which  filled  the  minds,  and  guided  the  pens  of  the  pro- 
phets of  the  Lord. 

It  has  been  correctly  remarked  by  a  learned  and  elaborate 
writer,  that  "a  better  and  more  certain  judgment  of  the  ancient 
Hebrews  cannot  be  formed,  than  from  the  monuments  which 
they  themselves,  or  their  descendants,  have  left  in  the  sacred 
scriptures."*  Considered  without  reference  to  their  inspiration 
— merely  as  literary  productions — as  a  record  of  events  which 
have  occurred  in  the  ancient  world,  and  as  developing  the  poli- 
tical and  religious  opinions  and  institutions  of  the  Jews,  they 
stand  the  most  splendid  monuments  of  ancient  learning.  They 
are  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  literature,  for  grandeur  and 
energy  of  expression,  and  sublimity  of  style,  while  they  exhibit 
the  most  sublime  and  comprehensive  system  of  ethics,  ever  of- 
fered to  the  consideration  of  man,  until  the  coming  of  Christ, 
who  more  distinctly  brought  life  and  5 ni mortality  to  light.  The 
most  profound  of  the  ancient  philosophers  who  adorned  the  aca- 
demic groves  of  Athens,  and  who  poured  forth  their  wisdom  to 
admiring  crowds,  never  equalled  them  in  their  morality;  nor  have 
the  most  celebrated  of  modern  writers  been  able  to  attain  their 
energy  and  sublimity  of  style  and  language. 

The  Hebrew  language,  according  to  the  opinions  of  those 

«  Enfield's  Hist.  DI  Fhilos.  vo)  I,  p.. 3?., 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  2y 

who  are  critically  conversant  with  it,  seems  well  suited  to  that 
forcible  and  energetic  mode  of  expression,  which  so  peculiarly 
distinguishes  the  Hebrew  writings.  Its  words  are  concise,  yet 
expressive,  derived  from  a  small  number  of  roots,  yet  without 
the  studied  and  artificial  composition  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
languages ;  its  words  follow  each  other  in  an  easy  and  natural 
order,  without  intricacy  or  transposition,  and,  above  all,  has  the 
richest  fecundity  in  verbs,  of  any  known  tongue,  either  ancient 
or  modern.  Hence,  we  may  attribute  that  remarkable  style  of 
composition,  peculiar  to  Hebrew  writers,  to  the  nature  and  con- 
struction of  the  language  itself,  as  well  as  to  the  sublime  ideas 
they  were  accustomed  to  entertain  of  the  Divine  Being,  which, 
apart  from  inspiration,  has  the  obvious  tendency  to  enlarge  the 
mind  and  elevate  the  feelings.  The  Jews  assert,  that  their  lan- 
guage is  the  original  language,  taught  by  God  himself  to  Adam, 
and  by  him  transmitted  to  his  posterity.  This,  however,  is  con- 
troverted, and  similar  claims  put  in  by  other  nations,  whose  ad- 
vocates have  labored  with  much  zeal  and  ingenuity,  to  establish 
their  respective  pretensions. 

In  Hebrew  literature,  other  subjects  of  controversy  exist,  in 
which  much  learning  has  been  employed,  namely,  with  regard 
to  the  particular  character  in  which  the  sacred  books  were  ori- 
ginally written,  and  with  regard  to  the  vowel  points.  As  to  the 
first  it  is  still  unsettled,  and  must  remain  so,  whether  the 
sacred  books  were  originally  written  in  the  present  square  cha- 
racter, or  in  the  old  Phoenician,  now  called  the  Samaritan;  much 
learning  and  diligent  investigation  has  been  displayed  on  both 
sides.  After  an  examination  of  the  subject  with  some  care,  so 
far  as  our  limited  means  of  information  would  permit,  we 
are  inclined  to  adopt  the  opinion,  that  the  sacred  books  were 
originally  written  in  the  Phcenecian  or  Samaritan  character,  and 
that  the  present  character  was  not  employed  until  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  captivity,  when  Ezra,  finding  that  they  had,  in  a 
great  measure,  disused  their  ancient  character,  found  it  requisite 
to  have  the  sacred  books  transcribed  in  the  Chaldee,  a  charac- 
ter with  which  they  had  become  familiar,  from  their  long  resi- 
dence in  Babylon. 

The  second  subject  alluded  to,  namely,  the  vowel  points,  is  of 
more  importance,  because  the  insertion  or  omission  of  a  point 
sometimes  gives  a  different  meaning  to  a  word.  This  contro- 


30  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

versy  rests  upon  the  question,  whether  they  were  originally  em- 
ployed by  the  sacred  writers,  or  whether  they  are  of  modern 
invention.  The  vowel  points  were  universally  deemed  of  equal 
antiquity  with  the  Hebrew  character  itself,  until  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  Levita,  a  learned  Jew  of  Ger- 
many, ventured  to  call  their  authenticity  in  question,  and  as- 
cribed their  invention  to  a  set  of  Jewish  critics,  called  Mazorites, 
who  flourished  about  five  hundred  years  after  Christ,  at  Tibe" 
rias  in  Gallilee,  and  who  devoted  themselves  to  a  revisal  of  the 
Hebrew  text;  and,  in  order  to  prevent  any  future  alterations, 
numbered  the  sections,  words  and  letters  in  each  book.  The 
points  are  hence  called  the  Mazoretic  points. 

For  and  against,  the  antiquity  and  authenticity  of  the  points, 
many  learned  Hebrew  scholars  have  employed  their  talents  and 
critical  acumen,  bat  like  most  other  subjects  of  controversy  the 
contest  continues,  and  in  one  university  the  Hebrew  language  is 
taught  with  points,  while  in  another  it  is  taught  without.  It  is 
agreed  by  all  that,  since  the  time  of  the  captivity,  the  Hebrew 
has  become  a  dead  language,  and  like  the  Greek  and  Latin,  its 
true  and  original  pronunciation  has  been  lost.  To  restore  this 
original  pronunciation,  was  one  of  the  objects,  it  is  said,  of  the 
Mazoritic  critics,  in  the  invention  and  use  of  the  vowel  points. 
To  prove  that  the  points  were  coeval  with  the  consonants,  and 
were  written  along  with  them  in  the  original  copies  of  the  sacred 
scriptures,  and  that  they  were  not  invented  by  the  Mazorites,  it 
is  alleged,  that  it  is  impossible  to  pronounce  the  language  with- 
out vowels,  so  it  would  be  impossible  to  teach  it,  unless  the 
vowels  were  expressed — that  if  the  present  vowel  points  are  not 
of  the  same  authority  with  the  consonants,  but  merely  of  human 
and  late  invention,  it  will  greatly  weaken  the  authority  of  the 
holy  scriptures,  and  leave  the  sacred  text  to  an  arbitrary  and 
uncertain  reading  and  interpretation — that  there  is  no  mention 
made  in  any  Jewish  writer  of  such  alteration,  or  addition  being 
made  in  the  Hebrew  bible — that  all  the  annotations  or  notes  of 
the  Mazorites  upon  the  vowels  relate  to  their  irregularity — that 
had  they  been  the  inventors  of  the  points,  they  would  not  have 
made  them  irregular,  according  to  their  own  judgments,  and 
that  there  is  express  mention  of  the  points  or  vowels,  in  books 
more  ancient  than  the  Talmud— books  written  before  the  time 
'>f  our  Saviour. 

. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  3^ 

On  the  other  side,  it  is  argued,  that  the  vowel  points  were 
unknown  to  the  seventy  who  translated  the  scriptures,  about 
two  hundred  and  eighty  years  before  Christ,  in  the  reign  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt.  If,  therefore,  it  is  said, 
the  Hebrew  manuscripts  at  the  time  of  the  seventy  were  un- 
pointed, or,  if  they  were  pointed  in  a  manner  different  from  that 
mode  of  pointing  which  has  come  down  to  us,  the  high  antiquity, 
and  of  course,  the  authority,  of  the  present  vowel  points  is  de- 
stroyed, and  will  reduce  the  invention  to  a  period  subsequent  to 
the  septuagint  translation.  In  support,  also,  of  this  opinion,  it 
is  said  that  Origen,  who  lived  in  the  third,  and  St.  Jerome,  who 
lived  in  the  fourth  century,  and  were  both  well  skilled  in  He- 
brew, make  no  mention  of  vowel  points;  the  latter  expressly 
asserts  that  the  manner  of  reading  the  Hebrew  was  unfixed  in 
his  time.  St.  Jerome  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  study  of 
Hebrew  literature,  having  spent  more  than  twenty  years,  solely 
for  the  purpose  of  attending  the  schools  of  the  most  celebrated 
Jewish  teachers,  and  conversing  with  the  most  intelligent  Jews 
on  the  subject  of  their  language,  and  the  meaning  of  their  sacred 
writings.  Another  remarkable  fact  is,  that  the  Jews  have  never 
suffered  the  manuscripts  which  are  preserved  in  their  synar 
gogues,  for  the  purposes  of  religious  worship,  to  be  disfigured 
with  points.  Such  is  the  substance  of  the  principal  arguments 
for  and  against  the  authority  and  authenticity  of  the  vowel 
points.  The  reader  who  is  desirous  of  examining  this  subject 
more  at  large,  is  referred  to  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.. 
Wilson's  Hebrew  Grammar,  and  Brown's  Antiquities  of  thd 
Jews* 

The  opponents  of  the  vowel  points  have  adopted  a  method  of 
reading  which  certainly  recommends  itself  for  its  simplicity: 
that  is,  by  supplying  a  short  a  or  e  between  the  consonants* 
The  vowels  thus  supplied  facilitate  the  pronunciation,  which 
can  be  acquired  in  a  very  short  time,  and  retained  with  very 
little  practice,  whereas  the  Mazoritic  points  are  complex  and 
difficult. 

The  first  and  most  celebrated  of  the  Hebrew  writers  of  whom 
we  have  any  certain  knowledge,  is  Moses,  who  composed  the 
Pentateuch,  about  1450  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  Mose& 
was  brought  up  in  the  court  of  Pharaoh,  and  was  instructed  in 
^11  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,  and  is  said  to  have  had  a  per 


• 


31  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

feet  knowledge  of  all  the  sciences  then  known.  At  forty  years 
of  age  he  left  the  court  of  the  Egyptian  king,  where  he  was  sur- 
rounded hy  the  blaze  and  splendor  of  royalty,  and  seeking  the 
land  of  Midian,  he  married  Zippora,  the  daughter  of  Jethro, 
priest  of  Midian,  and  became  an  humble  shepherd,  tending  the 
flocks  of  his  father  in  law.  From  this  humble  condition,  he  was 
called  to  be  the  law-giver  and  judge  of  God's  chosen  people,  and 
their  leader  from  the  house  of  bondage  to  the  promised  land. 
In  the  retirement  of  the  land  of  Midian,  while  pursuing  the 
peaceful  occupation  of  a  shepherd,  he  is  supposed  to  have  writ- 
ten by  divine  inspiration,  the  book  of  Genesis,  which  embraces 
a  period  of  twenty-three  hundred  and  sixty-nine  years,  from  the 
creation  of  the  world,  and  which  contains  the  only  authentic 
account  of  the  great  work  of  creation.  It  was  at  this  time  also, 
he  is  supposed  to  have  written  the  book  of  Job;  a  book  which 
yields  to  none  in  the  sacred  volume,  for  grand  and  sublime  con- 
ceptions, and  language  at  once  energetic  and  abounding  with 
the  most  pure  and  exalted  precepts  af  morality.  With  regard 
to  authorship  of*the  book  of  Job,  the  subject  is  stated  and  ex- 
amined at  some  length  and  with  much  learning,  in  the  preface  to 
Dr.  Clark's  commentary  on  the  book  of  Job.  In  addition  to  the 
sacred  books,  which  are  on  all  hands  acknowledged  to  be  the 
work  of  Moses,  he  is  said  to  have  written  several  other  works, 
not  now  extant,  from  which  Pythagoras  and  Plato  are  supposed 
to  have  drawn,  a  great  part  of  their  respective  doctrines.  This 
opinion,  however,  is  one  which  originated  with  the  philosophers 
of  the  Alexandrian  school,  for  the  purpose,  no  doubt,  of  gaining 
credit  for  the  doctrines  they  taught,  which  were  a  mixture  of  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  philosophy,  with  that  of  the  philosophers 
of  Greece. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  a  detailed  account  of  the  sa- 
cred writers  after  Moses,  or  a  minute  examination  of  their  par- 
ticular merits,  as  their  works  are,  or  ought  to  be,  familiar  to  our 
readers.  Among  the  most  distinguished,  however,  are  David, 
Solomon  and  the  prophets.  The  authorship  of  the  psalms  is 
generally  ascribed,  exclusively,  to  David,  who  has  been  empha- 
tically styled  the  "sweet  psalmist  of  Israel."  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  writers  among  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  fa- 
thers, who  contend,  that  the  psalms  are  not  the  production  of  a 
individual;  but  of  several.  St.  Athanasius  reckons  but 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE,  33 

seventy-two  psalms,  out  of  one  hundred  and  fifty,  which  have 
been  pronounced  canonical,  as  the  work  of  David,  and  the  same 
number  is  ascribed  to  him  by  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Csesaria. 

Although  the  whole  collection  of  psalms  may  not  have  been 
written  by  David,  we  have  sufficient  evidence,  that  the  greater 
portion  were  composed  by  him.  Warmed  by  a  spirit  of  devo- 
tion, and  animated  by  the  most  exalted  sentiments  of  the  wisdom 
and  perfections  of  the  great  Creator,  he  poured  forth  his  prayers 
in  the  most  sublime  poetry:  "The  Lord  reigneth,"  says  he,  "let 
the  earth  rejoice;  let  the  multitudes  of  the  isles  be  glad  thereof. 
Clouds  and  darkness  are  around  about  him;  righteousness  and 
judgment  are  the  habitation  of  his  throne.  A  fire  goeth  before 
him,  and  burneth  up  his  enemies  round  about.  His  lightnings 
enlightened  the  world;  the  earth  saw  and  trembled.  The  hills 
melted  like  wax  at  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  at  the  presence  of 
the  Lord  of  the  whole  earth.  The  heavens  declare  his  right- 
eousness, and  all  the  people  see  his  glory."  Sublime  as  are 
some  of  the  descriptions  of  Homer,  the  father  of  epic  poetry, 
they  fall  far  short  of  the  majesty  and  grandeur  of  the  royal 
psalmist.  In  the  psalms  there  is  a  peculiarity  of  style  and  lan- 
guage that  interests  the  imagination  whilst  it  improves  the  heart. 
"Other  poetry,"  says  Steele,  "leads  us  through  flowery  meadows, 
or  beautiful  gardens,  refreshing  with  cooling  breezes  or  delicious 
fruits,  soothes  us  with  the  murmur  of  waters  or  the  melodies  of 
birds,  or  else  conveys  us  to  the  court  or  camp;  dazzles  our  ima- 
gination with  crowns  and  sceptres,  embattled  hosts,  or  heroes 
shining  in  burnished  steel ;  but  sacred  numbers  seem  to  admit  us 
into  a  solemn  and  magnificent  temple;  they  encircle  us  with 
every  thing  that  is  holy  and  divine;  they  superadd  an  agreeable 
awe  and  reverence  to  all  those  pleasing  emotions  we  feel  from 
other  lays,  an  awe  and  reverence  that  exalts  whilst  it  chastises ; 
its  sweet  authority  restrains  each  undue  liberty  of  thought, 
word  and  action;  it  makes  us  think  better  and  more  nobly  of 
ourselves,  from  a  consciousness  of  the  great  presence  we  are  in, 
where  saints  surround  us,  and  angels  are  our  fellow  worshippers."* 
In  modern  times,  praise  is  often  bestowed  on  rank  and  title  which 
is  only  due  to  merit;  and  thus  we  frequently  find,  that  men  enjoy 
a  celebrity  in  the  literary  world,  on  account  of  their  elevated 
rank,  which  is  denied  to  superior  genius  in  humble  life.  This 

•*  Guardian  No.5! 


34  fi**  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

remark,  however,  will  not  apply  to  David,  who  wielded  the 
sceptre  of  a  then  powerful  nation,  and  was  surrounded  by  all 
the  splendor  of  royalty.  His  superior  endowments  commanded 
the  admiration  of  his  subjects,  yet  more  than  his  regal  state,  and 
while  posterity  acknowledges  his  claims  to  the  character  of  a 
poet  of  the  first  order,  it  acknowledges  also,  that  he  possessed 
the  inspiration  of  a  prophet,  and  was  the  "anointed  of  the  God 
of  Jacob."  The  psalms  were  collected  by  Esdras,  according  to 
a  tradition  prevailing  among  Hebrews  and  Christians.* 

Among  the  wise  men  of  the  Jews,  the  first  rank,  by  universal 
consent,  has  been  assigned  to  Solomon,  the  son  of  David.  In  the 
books  attributed  to  him,  we  discover  the  same  sublimity  of  con- 
ception, the  same  energy  of  language,  the  same  commanding 
eloquence,  that  distinguish  the  other  sacred  writers,  and  desig- 
nate one  to  whom  "wisdom  and  knowledge"  had  been  granted. 
The  writings  of  Solomon  display  extensive  knowledge  of  the 
ways  of  men,  and  a  superior  degree  of  moral  wisdom;  they  in- 
culcate doctrines  and  opinions  with  regard  to  the  conduct  of  men 
worthy  of  all  acceptation,  and  which  could  only  proceed  from  a 
mind  preeminently  enlightened.  That  he  was  well  skilled  in 
the  sciences  then  known  and  cultivated,  we  have  no  doubt;  but 
we  have  not  been  able  to  discover  that  profound  knowledge  in 
them  respectively,  which  have  been  ascribed  to  him.  We  re- 
gard him  rather  as  a  great  moral  teacher,  and  endowed  with  su- 
perior wisdom,  than  as  a  teacher  of  natural  and  physical  science. 
Of  the  works  of  Solomon,  we  have  the  books  of  Proverbs,  Ec- 
clesiastes  and  the  Song  of  Solomon.  These  are  generally,  if 
not  universally,  ascribed  to  him;  the  books  of  Wisdom  and  Ec- 
clesiasticus,  which  are  attributed  to  him  by  some,  are  denied  by 
others,  and  being  thus  of  doubtful  origin,  are  placed  among  the 
apocryphal  books.  Besides  the  above,  many  other  works  have 
been  attributed  to  his  pen,  on  magic,  medicine  and  a  variety  of 
other  subjects,  which  have  been  justly  rejected  as  infamous  at- 
tempts to  impose  on  the  credulity  of  mankind.  It  is  thought  by 
some,  that  Aristotle,  the  celebrated  Grecian  philosopher,  was 
indebted  to  some  of  the  works  of  Solomon,  not  now  extant,  for  a 
great  portion  of  that  wisdom  which  gained  him  so  much  cele- 
brity, even  in  modern  times.  It  is  easy  to  advance  such  an  opi> 

*Calraet'a  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  art.  Psaltnl 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

nion,  but  it  is  difficult  to  prove  or  disprove  it,  when  authorities 
for  either  purpose  are  unattainable. 

The  several  prophets  may,  with  propriety,  be  regarded  in  the 
list  of  Hebrew  writers.  They  were  the  divines,  the  philoso- 
phers, the  instructers  and  the  guides  of  the  Hebrews  in  piety 
and  virtue.  They  were  the  organs  through  which  the  Almighty 
thought  proper  to  communicate  his  will  to  his  chosen  people. 
They  generally  lived  retired,  in  a  sort  of  community,  where  they 
and  their  disciples  were  employed  in  prayer,  in  labor  and  in 
study.*  Their  sacred  character  and  exemplary  conduct,  in- 
spired the  people  with  that  reverence  which  is  due  to  the  minis- 
ter of  God,  and  secured  an  influence  never  employed  by  them, 
but  in  delivering  the  will  of  God,  and  inculcating  the  principles 
of  religion  and  virtue.  The  writings  of  the  prophets,  as  well 
as  the  other  sacred  writings,  have  been  remarkably  preserved 
amidst  the  convulsions  of  empires  and  the  devastations  of  war, 
which  have  destroyed  the  works  of  other  ancient  writers.  The 
remarkable  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies,  leaves  no  room  to  doubt 
of  their  immediate  inspiration,  and  affords  the  most  powerful 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  that  sublime  religion  which  has  brought 
life  and  immortality  to  light — a  religion  which,  when  left  free 
to  operate,  purifies  the  heart,  and  fits  the  soul  for  the  blessed 
regions  of  immortal  glory. 

In  the  old  testament,  we  have  the  writings  of  sixteen  pro- 
phets, four  of  whom  are  distinguished  as  the  greater,  and  twelve 
as  the  lesser  prophets.  The  four  greater  are  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel  and  Daniel.  The  twelve  lesser  are  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos, 
Obadiah,  Micah,  Jonah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Hag- 
gai,  Zechariah  and  Malachi. 

In  addition  to  the  books  considered  canonical,  Hebrew  litera- 
ture possesses  other  works.  The  books  of  the  Apocrypha,  so 
called  from  the  Greek  word  artox^vxtv,  "to  hide,"  because  of 
their  doubtful  origin,  were  never  admitted  into  the  Jewish  ca- 
non, nor  read  in  the  synagogue.  Neither  are  they  admitted  as 
canonical  by  protestant  Christians,  but  they,  nevertheless,  con- 
tain many  sublime  sentiments,  and  supply  many  historical  facts 
in  relation  to  the  history  of  the  Jews.  As  literary  productions 
then,  they  deserve  to  occupy  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  history 
of  the  period  to  which  they  belong. 

*  Calmet's  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  art.  Prophet. 


35'  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Among  the  more  modern  Jewish  writers,  Josephus  holds  the 
first  place.  He  was  horn  in  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  37,  and  was  pre- 
sent when  that  city  was  taken  by  the  Romans  under  Vespasian. 
Having  surrendered  himself  to  the  conqueror,  he  gained  his  es- 
teem and  favor  by  flattering  his  vanity,  and  foretelling  that  he 
would  one  day  become  master  of  the  Roman  empire.  After  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  he  accompanied  that  conqueror  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  privileges  of  a  Roman  citi- 
zen. During  his  residence  there,  he  employed  his  time  in  study, 
and  in  collecting  and  arranging  the  materials  for  his  celebrated 
works,  "The  wars  of  the  Jews"  and  the  "Antiquities  of  the 
Jews."  These  works  \vere  composed  during  the  reign  of  Titus, 
whose  favor  and  patronage  Josephus  enjoyed.  The  "Wars  of 
the  Jews"  was  originally  written  in  Syriac,  and  afterwards  trans- 
lated into  Greek;  the  "Antiquities"  was  written  in  Greek.  Be- 
sides these  works,  he  wrote  some  others  of  minor  celebrity.  His 
works  are  much  esteemed  as  a  valuable  record  of  historical 
facts,  so  far  as  his  own  nation  is  immediately  concerned ;  but 
when  he  speaks  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  great  and  interesting 
events  of  his  life,  he  writes  with  all  the  prejudices  of  a  Jew, 
and  misapplies  some  of  the  most  prominent  and  striking  pro- 
phecies. 

The  Midmschim,  is  a  work  of  great  antiquity  and  of  high  au- 
thority. This  work,  as  the  name  imports,  consists  of  commen- 
taries upon  the  scriptures.  The  Misna,  or  Mishna,  contains  the 
oral  law  delivered  by  Moses,  first  to  Aaron  and  his  sons,  and 
then  to  the  seven  elders.  The  Jews  believe,  that  when  God 
gave  the  written  law  to  Moses,  he  gave  them  also  another  not 
written,  which  was  preserved  among  the  doctors  of  the  syna- 
gogue, until  the  year  A.  D.  180,  when  Judas  the  Holy,  a  learn- 
ed Rabbin,  and  a  chief  of  the  Jev>  s,  apprehensive  lest  the  tra- 
ditions and  rites  of  their  fathers  might  be  forgot,  in  consequence 
of  their  dispersion  throughout  many  provinces  and  countries, 
thought  it  better  to  reduce  them  to  writing,  than  to  trust  to  their 
memories.  Thus  the  Mishna  was  compiled,  and  was  received 
with  profound  veneration  by  the  Jews,  and  their  learned  men 
made  it  their  principal  study.  This  work  is  divided  into  six 
parts,  and  contains  the  whole  of  their  oral  laws,  and  treats  of 
rheir  obligations,  sacrifices,  and  whatever  relates  thereto.  Ju 
i •'.<*  the  Holy,  the  compiler  of  the  Mishna.  was  the  chief  of  those 


kJ 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  jy 

doctors  or  learned  men,  called  Tanaitcs,  or  preservers  of  .the 
tradition,  whom  they  believed  enjoyed  the  peculiar  favor  of 
God. 

The  Talmud  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Talmud  of  Babylon,  are 
both  important  works,  and  esteemed  of  high  authority.  The 
Talmud  contains  the  body  of  the  doctrine,  religion  and  mora- 
lity of  the  Jews.  That  of  Jerusalem  was  compiled  about  300 
years  after  Christ,  by  the  Rabbi  Johanan,  and  is  composed  of  the 
Mishna,  and  the  Gemara,  a  commentary  upon  the  Mishna,  by  Jo- 
hanna; that  of  Babylon  is  composed  of  the  Mishna,  and  the 
commentary  of  Rabbi  Asa,  who  lived  at  Babylon  about  400 
years  after  Christ.  The  latter  was  compiled,  because  that  of 
Jerusalem  was  considered  imperfect,  as  containing  only  the  opi- 
nions of  a  few  of  the  Rabbins  of  Jerusalem.  The  Talmud  of 
Babylon  is  generally  preferred  by  the  Jews  to  that  of  Jerusalem, 
because  it  is  more  extensive.  Notwithstanding  it  abounds  with 
miraculous  stories,  its  authority  is  even  preferred  by  some  to  that 
of  the  scriptures.  They  believe  the  traditions  contained  therein, 
are  derived  from  God  himself, that  Moses  revealed  them  to  Aaron, 
to  the  sons  of  Aaron,  and  to  the  elders  of  Israel,  and  that  they 
passed  down  until  they  came  to  the  doctors,  who  reduced  them 
to  the  form  of  the  Mishna  and  the  Gemara. 

The  Targum,  is  the  Chaldee  paraphrase  of  the  written  law, 
as  the  Talmud  is  of  the  oral.  It  received  its  origin  from  the 
captive  Jews  of  Babylon,  whose  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  had 
become  so  imperfect,  that  when  the  Hebrew  text  was  read  in  the 
synagogues,  Ezra  and  the  other  priests,  added  an  explanation  or 
commentary  in  Chaldee,  for  the  advantage  of  the  people.  The 
explanations  and  commentaries  thus  given  by  Ezra  and  his  suc- 
cessors, were  not  committed  to  writing  until  the  time  of  Onkelos 
and  Jonathan,  who  lived  about  the  time  of  our  Saviour.  They 
both  composed  paraphrases;  that  of  Onkelos  is  on  the  books  of 
Moses,  and  is  most  esteemed;  that  of  Jonathan,  is  on  the  greater 
and  lesser  prophets;  his  style  is  diffuse,  and  he  often  takes  great 
liberties,  particularly  with  the  lesser  prophets.  The  parentage 
of  Onkelos  is  uncertain;  by  some  he  is  supposed  to  be  a  Gen- 
tile, who  was  converted  to  Judaism;  by  others,  that  he  was  the 
son  of  the  emperor  Titus,  and  by  others,  that  he  was  his  ne- 
phew. His  Targum,  or  paraphrase  of  the  Pentateuch,  has 
always  been  greatly  esteemed  by  the  Jews,  and  in  many  copies 


38  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

of  the  scripture  it  was  inserted  after  the  original  text;  the  same 
musical  notes  were  put  to  it,  that  it  might  be  read  with  a  kind 
of  chanting  at  the  same  time  with  the  original,  and  to  the  same 
tune.*  There  are  several  other  works  of  ancient  Jews,  whose 
writings  were  much  esteemed,  and  whose  opinions  were  receiv- 
ed with  great  respect. 

Among  the  ancient  nations  of  the  east,  the  Chaldeans  enjoyed 
a  high  reputation  for  learning,  and  have  divided  with  the  Egyp- 
tians the  honor  of  originating  certain  arts  and  sciences,  which 
modern  learning  and  ingenuity  have  improved  and  applied  to 
many  useful  practical  purposes.  That  they  cultivated  learning 
to  some  extent,  at  a  very  early  period,  is  acknowledged  on  all 
hands;  but  it  was  exclusively  confined  to  the  Chaldean,  as  it  was 
to  the  Egyptian,  priesthood.  The  public  at  large  received  no  be- 
nefit from  the  knowledge  they  possessed,  which  was  rather  em- 
ployed in  riveting  the  chains  of  superstition,  than  in  enlight- 
ening the  mind.  Their  peculiar  doctrines  were  concealed  from 
the  profane  and  uninitiated  by  means  of  hieroglyphics,  and  were 
only  taught  to  those  who  were  designed  for  the  priesthood. 
The  priests  instructed  the  people  in  the  principles  of  religion 
and  conducted  its  ceremonies;  they  interpreted  the  laws  of  the 
kingdom;  they  pretended  to  predict  future  events  by  divination; 
to  explain  prodigies  and  interpret  dreams,  and  to  avert  evils  or 
confer  benefits,  by  means  of  augury  and  incantations.  Astrology 
was  held  in  such  estimation  among  them,  that  a  distinct  order  of 
men  was  appointed  to  make  observations  upon  the  heavenly 
bodies;  hence,  the  appellations  of  Chaldean  and  astrologer  be- 
came, afterwards,  synonymous  terms.  The  peculiar  principles 
of  their  religion  or  philosophy,  the  Chaldeans  are  supposed  to 
have  received  from  a  philosopher  called  Zoroaster,  a  different 
person,  however,  from  the  Persian  Zoroaster,  but  equally  re- 
nowned as  one  of  the  benefactors  of  the  human  race.  They 
believed  in  a  God  or  Supreme  Being,  the  fountain  of  intelligence 
by  whose  providence  and  care  the  world  is  governed,  and  also 
in  several  inferior  and  subordinate  gods,  who  assisted  in  the 
government  of  human  affairs.  These  gods  consisted  of  the  sun, 
moon,  planets  and  stars,  and  to  them  religious  homage  was  of- 
fered. The  Chaldean  priests,  like  the  Egyptian,  are  supposed 
to  have  taught  in  the  retirement  of  their  temples  a  more  sub 

**  Calmet's  Diet. ;  Brown's  Ant,  of  the  Jews 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  3^ 

lime  and  rational  system  of  religion,  than  that  taught  to  the  peo- 
ple. Of  the  writings  of  the  Chaldean  sages  and  philosophers, 
we  can  form  no  opinion,  as  none  remain  to  satisfy  the  inquiring 
mind. 

India  lays  claim  to  high  antiquity  as  well  on  the  score  of 
learning  and  philosophy,  as  to  existance  as  a  nation.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  ascertain  at  what  period  the  most  ancient  philosophers 
and  learned  men  of  India  flourished,  but  it  is  well  known  that  in 
the  most  remote  times  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge,  there 
existed  in  that  country  a  race  of  men,  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  Gymnosophists,  with  whom  the  present  system  of  Hindoo  re- 
ligion and  worship  originated.  They  were  divided  into  sects, 
tribes  or  castes,  the  principal  of  which  was  that  of  the  Brahmins, 
, still  the  chief  caste  among  the  Hindoos.  These  wise  men  not 
only  distinguished  themselves  for  the  cultivation  of  science,  but 
were  remarkable  for  their  rigid  abstinence,  their  contempt  of 
the  pleasures  of  the  world,  and  their  uniform  austerity  of  manner. 
This  austerity  and  contempt  for  the  pleasures  of  life,  and  their 
frequent  conversations  on  divine  things,  gave  a  sort  of  sanctity 
to  their  character,  and  obtained  for  them  an  unbounded  influence 
over  the  people  who  are  accustomed  to  regard  sanctity  of  char- 
acter with  peculiar  reverence.  Like  the  philosophers  of  whom 
we  have  already  spoken,  they  took  great  pains  to  conceal  their 
learning  and  the  mysteries  of  their  religion,  from  the  common 
people,  and  for  the  same  reason — that  they  might  preserve  the 
influence  they  had  obtained.  The  Hindoo  system  of  religion 
and  morality  is  contained  in  their  sacred  books,  which  denoun- 
ced the  heaviest  penalties  on  whoever  should  reveal  their  con- 
tents to  the  uninitiated,  and  it  was  not  until  a  recent  period  that 
any  portion  of  them  was  translated,  and  any  part  of  their  hidden 
mysteries  revealed.  For  the  interesting  information  we  possess 
on  that  subject  we  are  indebted  to  the  exertions  of  Sir  William 
Jones,  who  in  his  zeal  to  inquire  into  the  secrets  of  oriental  lit- 
erature, found  means  to  unlock  the  treasure.  The  admirers  of 
Hindoo  literature  assert,  that  their  learned  men  yielded  the 
palm  of  learning  to  scarcely  any  other  of  the  ancients,  and  that 
the  more  their  philosophical  works  and  law  books  are  studied, 
the  more  the  inquirer  will  be  convinced  of  the  depth  of  wisdom 
possessed  by  authors,  many  of  whom  flourished  one  thousand 
rears  before  the  birth  of  Christ, according  to  Hindoo  chronology. 


40  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

The  sacred  writings  of  the  Hindoos,  which  they  attribute  to 
the  gods,  are  contained  in  the  four  vedus.  Each  vedu  consists  oi 
two  parts,  called  the  munturs  and  the  bramhunus,  or  prayers 
and  hymns.  The  complete  collection  of  the  hymns,  prayers, 
and  invocations  belonging  to  one  vedu,  is  entitled  its  sunghita. 
Every  other  portion  of  Indian  scripture  is  included  under  the 
general  head  of  bramunu.  This  comprises  precepts,  which  in- 
clude the  religious  duties ;  maxims  which  explain  those  precepts ; 
and  arguments  which  relate  to  theology. 

The  Hindoos  have  a  great  number  of  law  books  extant,  which 
embrace  a  great  variety  of  subjects  that  would  naturally  suggest 
themselves  to  wise  legislators  in  drawing  up  a  code  for  the  regu- 
lation of  civil  society.  But,  as  their  legislators  usually  united 
the  threefold  character  of  philosopher,  priest  and  lawgiver, 
their  civil  and  criminal  laws  were  not  entirely  separated  from 
those  concerning  religious  duties  and  ceremonies.  Many  of 
their  laws  appear  to  have  been  dictated  by  true  wisdom,  and  a 
proper  regard  to  the  rights  of  individuals,  whilst  others  are  par- 
tial and  unjust — thus,  "If  a  man  deprive  another  of  life,  he  shall 
suffer  death;  but  if  a  brahmin  do  this  he  shall  be  fined."  Of- 
fences against  the  brahmins  are  punished  with  the  utmost  se- 
verity. 

The  ancient  Hindoos  possessed  considerable  knowledge  oi 
various  sciences — of  their  knowledge  of  astronomy  there  are 
still  remaining  some  curious  monuments.  The  works  still  extant 
which  treat  of  this  science  are  said  to  be  about  sixty,  and  al- 
though they  contain  many  absurdities  and  extravagant  fancies, 
they  manifest  high  intellectual  powers,  and  much  inquiry  and 
observation.  They  give  the  circumference  and  diameter  of  the 
earth,  which,  according  to  their  mode  of  computation,  greatly 
exceeds  the  measurement  of  the  astronomers  of  the  present  day 
— they  describe  the  causes  of  the  eclipse  of  the  sun  and  moon — 
their  appearance  during  an  eclipse — the  times  of  the  rising  and 
setting  of  the  planets,  and  the  periods  when  different  planets 
are  in  conjunction,  and  many  other  particulars  of  the  heavenly 
bodies. 

The  Hindoos  cultivated  poetry  as  a  pleasing  relaxation  front 
severer  studies,  and  their  philosophers  laying  aside  their  grave 
discussions,  laid  down  certain  rules  for  poetic  composition,  and 
reduced  it  to  a  system.  Likp  that  of  other  eastern  nations,  thei? 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  41 

poetry  abounded  in  metaphors,  often  extravagant,  but  some- 
times beautiful.  The  following  description  of  winter,  will  serve 
as  a  specimen; 

"This  season,  as  a  king,  with  the  cold  winds  for  his  retinue, 
advances  from  the  Himalayu  to  conquer  the  earth — he  destroys 
the  pride  of  the  most  powerful:  the  lord  of  day,  filled  with  fear, 
takes  refuge  in  the  south-east;  every  morning  the  shivering 
wretch,  raising  his  head,  seeks  him  in  vain;  day,  mourning  the 
loss  of  his  lord,  constantly  wastes  away;  the  water-lily,  having 
lost  her  beloved,  ashamed,  hides  her  head  beneath  the  waters; 
fire,  having  lost  his  energy,  retires  to  the  cottage  of  the  poor* 
covering  himself  with  rags,  so  that  even  the  starving  wretch  sets 
him  at  defiance. 

"The  coldness  of  the  water  excites  the  same  fears  in  the  mind, 
as  the  presence  of  a  serpent;  a  fire  without  smoke  awakens  the 
same  desires  as  the  breast  of  a  female  on  the  mind  of  the  un- 
chaste; the  rays  of  the  sun  cheer  the  heart  like  the  birth  of  a 
son;  the  impression  of  the  cold  wind  on  the  body,  resembles  un- 
kind words  from  the  lips  of  a  friend."* 

The  Persians  were  also  a  distinguished  people  in  the  early  age 
of  the  world.  Amongthem  a  system  of  religion  and  philosophy  was 
introduced,  differing  in  many  respects,  from  that  of  surrounding 
nations.  By  some  this  system  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
by  a  philosopher  named  Zoroaster,  who  is  often  confounded  with 
the  Chaldean  of  the  same  name ;  and  by  others  it  is  thought,  that 
their  religious  opinions  and  observances,  having  become  corrupt- 
ed, were  only  revived  and  restored  by  him  to  their  original 
state.  The  time  when  this  philosopher  lived,  is  uncertain;  and 
while  some  suppose  him  to  have  been  the  patriarch  Abraham, 
others  maintain  that  he  lived  and  commenced  the  work  of  refor- 
mation in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  who  filled  the  Persian 
throne  about  the  year  435  before  Christ.  Zoroaster  is  said  to 
have  written  many  works  on  religion  and  philosophy;  one  of" 
which,  the  Zend  or  Zendavesta,  is  still  extant,  and  explains  the 
order  and  forms  of  the  rites  and  ceremonies,  and  the  principles 
of  religion  and  morality  which  he  taught.  His  followers  re- 
garded this  work  with  the  same  veneration  as  Christians 
do  the  Bible,  looking  upon  it  as  an  emanation  of  divine  wisdom. 

*  For  further  information  on  the  subject  of  Hindoo  literature,  the  reader  is  referred 
*o  Sir  William  Jones1  Works,  Ward's  History  of  Hindoos  and  the  Abbe  Dubois' India 

6 


42  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

In  this  book  are  many  laws  which  appear  to  have  been  taken 
from  the  laws  of  Moses,  and  the  account  of  the  creation,  as  given 
therein,  bears  a  strong  affinity  to  that  ofMoses,Zoroaster  declaring 
that  the  world  was  created  in  six  periods,  making  together  three 
hundred  and  sixty-five  days. 

Before  the  time  of  Zoroaster,  there  existed  in  Persia  a  body 
of  men,  known  by  the  name  of  Magi,  who  were  the  priests  of 
the  people  and  the  philosophers  of  the  country.  The  religion 
which  they  taught,  consisted  of  the  worship  of  the  sun,  under 
the  name  of  Mithra,  and  of  Oromasdes,  the  author  of  all  good, 
and  Arimanius,  the  author  of  all  evil ;  but  whether  they  consi- 
dered the  latter  as  equal  or  inferior  to  Mithra,  is  uncertain. 
Zoroaster  introduced  many  alterations  into  the  mode  of  worship, 
and  into  their  religious  system,  and  amongst  others  taught  that 
Mithra  was  a  divinity  who  acted  as  a  moderator  between  Oro- 
masdes  and  Arimanius,  and  was  hence  called  the  Mediator.  He 
believed  that  these  two  divinities,  or  the  causes  of  good  and 
evil,  were  perpetually  at  variance,  but  that,  through  the  inter- 
vention of  the  mediator,  the  contest  would  eventually  terminate 
in  favor  of  the  good  principle.  There  still  exists  in  Persia,  a 
sect  called  Guebres,  or  fire  worshippers,  who  still  conform  to  the 
principles  of  Zoroaster.* 


CHAPTER  n. 

Literature  of  the  Greeks.  Greek  Poets :  Orpheus,  Linus,  Musauv* 
Ancient  bards:  Homer,  Hesiod,  Archilochus,  TyrtazuS)  AlccKus, 
Sappho.  Dramatic  poetry :  Thespis,  Pratinas. 

NOTWITHSTANDING  the  laborious  researches  and  investiga- 
tions of  historians  and  philosophers,  darkness  and  obscurity  still 
rest  upon  the  early  history  of  Greece;  and  in  endeavoring  to 
trace  even  its  outlines,  we  become  bewildered  and  entangled  in 
the  mazes  of  tradition,  or  lost  in  the  fabulous  and  legendary 
history  of  the  times.  Historians,  however,  are  agreed  in 

*  Enfield's  Hist,  of  Phil,  vol.1;  Cal.  Diet,  art.  Zoroaster. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  43 

that  the  original  inhabitants  led  a  savage  and  wandering  life, 
after  the  manner  of  the  aboriginal  natives  of  the  American  con- 
tinent, and  like  them,  were  governed  by  no  regular  system  of 
laws,  but  such  only  as  mutual  safety  and  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  the  times  may  have  dictated.  Instead  of  commodi- 
ous dwellings,  furnished  with  the  necessary  conveniences  for 
domestic  comfort,  they  sheltered  themselves  in  caves  or  rudely 
constructed  huts;  instead  of  indulging  a  fastidious  appetite  in 
the  luxuries  of  the  table,  they  were  content  with  the  precarious 
support  they  derived  from  fishing  and  hunting.  Such  was  the 
condition  of  Greece  in  its  primitive  state;  yet,  did  this  people, 
so  uncivilized  and  barbarous  in  their  original  manner  of  living, 
become  the  teachers  of  other  nations,  in  philosophy,  poetry, 
oratory,  architecture,  sculpture  and  painting,  which  rose  amongst 
them  to  such  a  state  of  perfection,  that  "modern  degeneracy," 
although  it  has  imitated,  has  not  been  able,  in  many  essential 
particulars,  to  reach  them. 

In  consequence  of  their  communication  and  intercourse  with 
the  nations  of  the  east,  particularly  with  Egypt,  where,  as  we 
have  seen,  literature,  science  and  art,  had  made  some  progress, 
the  Grecian  nations  emerged  from  a  state  of  barbarism,  at 
an  earlier  period  than  any  other  people  of  Europe.  They  de- 
rived great  advantages  also,  from  the  Phoenician  navigators  who 
visited  their  islands  and  coasts  in  the  course  of  their  commercial 
pursuits,  and  who,  by  introducing  new  wants,  gradually  intro- 
duced new  and  useful  arts,  which  were  cultivated  and  improved 
by  a  people,  naturally  ingenious,  who  readily  perceived  the  ad- 
vantages to  be  derived  from  them.  That  species  of  knowledge, 
however,  conferred  upon  them  by  the  Phoenician  navigators  and 
adventurers,  and  which  is  most  intimately  connected  with  the 
subject  of  the  present  volume,  is  alphabetic  writing.  Cadmus, 
a  Phoenician,  who  is  said  to  have  founded  the  city  of  Thebes,  in 
Boetia,  instructed  them  in  the  use  of  the  alphabet,  (at  that  time 
consisting  of  but  sixteen  letters,)  about  1519  years  before  Christ, 
and  sixty  years  after  Cecrops  founded  the  celebrated  city  of 
Athens.  The  use  of  letters,  notwithstanding  their  great  impor- 
tance in  the  preservation  of  all  useful  knowledge,  did  not  be- 
come general  until  near  four  hundred  years  after;  the  greater 
part  of  the  people  still  continuing  to  practise  picture  or  hiero- 
glyphic writing. 

I 


44  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Before  the  invention  of  letters,  poetry  seems  to  have  been  the 
means  by  which  knowledge  of  almost  every  kind  was  communi- 
cated; and  in  savage  and  uncultivated  nations,  minstrels,  whose 
poetical  effusions  were  rude  and  uncouth  in  their  construc- 
tion, but  energetic  and  vigorous  in  their  mode  of  expres- 
sion, obtained  an  extraordinary  degree  of  favor  and  influence. 
The  history  of  the  times,  the  praises  of  their  God,  their  religi- 
ous rites  and  ceremonies,  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  their  philoso- 
phy, and  even  their  laws,  were  embodied  in  poetic  numbers. 
They  thus  expressed  their  joy  for  victories  obtained  over  their 
enemies,  celebrated  the  valiant  achievements  of  their  heroes, 
and  poured  forth  their  lamentations  over  their  public  and  pri- 
vate calamities.  This  species  of  composition  has  prevailed  in 
all  nations  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge.  The  prophets  of 
the  Hebrews,  "prophesied  with  psaltery,  tabret  and  harp  before 
them;"  and  the  most  ancient  specimen  of  written  poetry  now 
extant,  is  the  song  of  Moses,  offered  upon  the  banks  of  the  Red 
sea,  for  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  their  Egyptian* 
bondage,  which  was  composed  when  Greece,  afterwards  the 
most  polished  nation  of  antiquity,  was  inhabited  by  a  people  not 
better,  or  mora  civilized,  than  the  American  savages.  Among 
the  Persians,  Arabians  and  other  nations  of  the  east,  poetry  was 
the  earliest  form  in  which  their  learning  was  communicated. 
Tacitus*  says,  "the  Germans  abounded  with  rude  strains  of 
verse,  the  reciters  of  which,  in  the  language  of  the  country, 
were  called  bards"  Before  going  to  battle  they  sung  the  war 
song,  which  was  a  recapitulation  of  their  warlike  exploits,  and 
invoked  the  God  of  War,  as  the  Scandinavians  invoked  the  name 
of  Odin. 

The  earliest  poets  of  Greece,  of  whom  we  have  any  informa- 
tion, are  Orpheus •,  Linus  and  Musceus,  who,  by  many,  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  contemporaries,  but  whether  they  really 
were  so,  is  very  uncertain ;  they  lived  at  least,  in  periods  not 
very  remote  from  each  other. 

Orpheus  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  1244  years  before 
Christ,  and  taught  in  verse  the  "learned  lore"  he  acquired  from 
the  Egyptian  philosophers;  he  also  introduced  music  and  poetry 
into  the  religious  ceremonies  of  Greece,  and  thereby  increased 

*  Manners  of  the  Germans,  ch.  3*. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  4i> 

their  solemnity  and  attractions.  Orpheus  was  distinguished  not 
enly  as  a  poet  and  musician,  but  as  a  warrior,  having  been  one 
of  that  band  of  adventurers  who  engaged  in  the  Argonautic 
expedition,  so  celebrated  in  Grecian  annals;  the  true  object  of 
which  it  has  puzzled  the  brain  of  the  antiquary  and  historian  to 
discover.  The  departure  of  this  expedition,  is  thus  described 
by  Appolonius  Rhodius: 

"On  their  allotted  posts  now  rang'd  along, 

In  seemly  order  sat  the  princely  throng. 

Fast  by  each  chief  his  glittering  armor  flames ; 

The  midmost  station  bold  Ancseus  claims; 

While  great  Alcides,  whose  enornious  might, 

Arm'd  with  a  massy  club,  provokes  the  fight, 

Now  plac'd  beside  him.     In  the  yielding  flood. 

The  keel,  deep  sinking,  feels  the  demi  god. 

Their  hawsers  now  they  loose,  and  on  the  brine 

To  Neptune  pour  the  consecrated  wine; 

While,  raising  high  the  Thracian  harp,  presides 

Melodious  Orpheus,  and  the  movement  guides. 

On  either  side  the  clashing  surges  broke ; 

And  hoarse  remurmur'd  to  each  mighty  stroke; 

Thick  flash'd  the  brazen  arms  with  streaming  light. 

While  the  swift  bark  pursued  her  rapid  flight; 

And  ever  as  thr  sea-green  tide  she  cleaves, 

Forms  the  long  track  behind,  and  whitens  all  the  waves." 

A  poetical  account  of  this  celebrated  expedition  is  still  ex- 
tant, said  to  have  been  written  by  Orpheus  himself,  which  is 
doubted  by  Aristotle,  who  even  denies  the  existence  of  such  a 
person,  and  attempts  to  rob  him  of  his  honors  by  attributing  the 
poems  known  by  the  name  of  Orphic,  to  a  philosopher  named 
Cercops,  who  does  not  appear  to  be  otherwise  distinguished, 
than  by  a  place  in  the  works  of  the  Stagyrite.  Of  the  skill  of 
Orpheus  in  music,  many  wonderful  anecdotes  are  related.  A- 
mongst  others,  he 


as  the  story  goes,  could  call 


Obedient  stones  to  make  the  Theban  wall, 
He  led  them  as  he  pleas'd,the  rocks  obeyed 
And  danc'd  in  order  to  the  tunes  he  play'd. 

Francis'  trans,  of  Hor.  Art  of  Poetry, 

Orpheus,  it  is  said,  instituted  the  mysteries  of  Bacchus,  in 
imitation  of  the  Egyptian  mysteries  of  Isis  and  Osiris.  He  is 
also  said  to  have  instituted  the  Eleusynian  mysteries,  usually  at- 
tributed to  the  goddess  Ceres.  There  are  still  extant  some 


4b-  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

fragments  of  his  hymns,  which  are  remarkable  as  containing  the 
most  exalted  ideas  of  the  unity  of  God,  and  of  the  attributes  of 
the  Deity,  without  any  mixture  of  the  doctrines  of  polytheism. 
The  following  fragment  of  a  hymn,  preserved  by  Suidas,  bears 
so  strong  a  resemblance  to  the  sacred  writings,  that,  if  genuine, 
it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  he  had  not  some  knowledge  of  the 
Hebrew  scriptures.  "God  is  self-existent  and  every  thing  ex- 
ists through  him.  He  is  every  where,  yet  no  mortal  has  beheld 
him.  He  alone  distributes,  in  his  justice, those  calamities  which 
afflict  mankind.  He  governs  and  directs  the  wind  of  heaven 
and  controls  the  lightning.  He  is  seated  high  in  the  heavens  on 
a  throne  of  gold,  and  the  earth  is  his  footstool.  He  stretches 
his  hand  to  the  boundaries  of  the  ocean,  and  the  mountains 
tremble  to  their  foundations.  It  is  he  who  created  the  universe 
and  every  thing  therein,  and  who  is  at  once  the  beginning,  the 
middle  and  the  end."  Oi-pheus  was  a  native  of  Thrace,  and  ha- 
ving travelled  into  Egypt,  he  was  initiated  into  a  knowledge  of 
all  the  sciences  taught  by  the  Egyptian  philosophers,  and  on  his 
return  from  Egypt,  and  settlement  in  Greece,  he  obtained 
that  influence  which  cultivated  minds  soon  acquire  over  the 
rude  and  uncultivated.  This  influence,  however,  was  exerted 
for  the  purpose  of  ameliorating  the  condition  of  a  barbarous 
race,  and  introducing  among  them  the  arts  of  peace,  which 
conduce  to  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of  life.  There  are 
many  ancient  poems  which  bear  the  name  of  Orpheus,  but  which 
are,  probably,  the  productions  of  other  and  more  recent  pens. 
Orpheus  was  not  only  admired  as  a  poet,  but  is  also  ranked  among 
the  ancient  philosophers,  and  taught  that  God  existed  from  all 
eternity,  and  consisted  of  a  compound  nature,  active  and  pas- 
sive— that  by  the  energy  of  the  active  principle,  he  sent  forth 
from  himself,  all  material  and  spiritual  beings,  which  partake, 
in  different  degrees,  of  the  Divine  Nature — that  all  beings,  pro- 
ceeding originally  from  God,  will,  after  certain  purgations,  re- 
turn to  him — and  that  the  universe  itself  will  be  destroyed  by 
fire,  and  afterwards  renewed.*  He  is  also  said  by  Diodorus 
Siculus,t  to  be  the  first  who  taught  among  the  Greeks  the  doc- 
trine of  the  future  punishment  of  the  wicked,  and  the  happiness 
•f  the  good.  We  think  it  extremely  doubtlful,  whether  any 


*  Enfield's  Hist,  of  Philos.  vol.  1.  p.  126. 
V  Lib.  1,86. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  4-7 

such  doctrine  was  ever  taught  by  Orpheus,  who,  we  have  alrea- 
dy seen,  received  his  knowledge  from  the  Egyptians,  to  whose 
priests  the  doctrine  of  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments, 
was  never  revealed.  This  doctrine  was  not  even  made  known 
to  Moses,  but  was  reserved  to  be  brought  to  light  by  the  son  of 
God  himself. 

Linus  was  a  native  of  Thebes  in  Boetia,  and  was  also  ranked 
among  philosophers,  as  almost  every  man  was  in  those  early 
times,  who  had  more  than  an  ordinary  share  of  information,  and 
who  was  careful  to  wrap  in  mystery,  his  peculiar  doctrines  and 
opinions.  Of  his  poetry  or  his  system  of  philosophy,  little  can 
be  said  either  by  way  of  praise  or  censure,  as  all  the  information 
we  possess,  with  regard  to  either,  is  contained  in  the  writings  of 
others,  consisting  of  a  few  fragments  only.  He  is  thought  by 
some  to  have  been  the  first  inventor  of  rhyme,  and  to  have  pre- 
ceded Orpheus.  Virgil  in  his  sixth  eclogue  places  him  near  the 
muses  on  Parnassus. 

Turn  canet  errantem  Permessi  ad  flumina  Gallum 
Aonias  in  monies  ut  dixerit  una  sororum; 
Utque  viro  Phoebi  chorus  assurrexerit  omnis ; 
Ut  Linus  hoec  illi  divino  carmine  pastor, 
Floribus  atque  apio  crines  ornatus  amaro 
Dixerit:  Hos  tibi  dant  calamos,etiaccipe,Musae. 
Ascraeo  quos  anti  seni:  quibus  ille  solebat 
Cantando  rigidas  deducere  montibus  ornos. 
His  tibi  Grynaei  nemoris  dictatur  origo ; 
Nequis  sit  lucus,  quo  se  plus  jactet  Apollo. 

Eel.  VI.  65 

He  taught  which  Muse  did  by  Apollo's  will 

Guide  wandering  Gallus  to  the  Aonian  hili; 

(Which  place  the  gods  for  solemn  meetings  chose) 

With  deep  respect  the  learned  senate  rose, 

And  Linus  thus,  (deputed  by  the  rest) 

The  hero's  welcome  and  their  thanks  espress'd; 

This  harp  of  old  to  Hesiod  did  belong, 

To  this,  the  muses'  gift, join  thy  harmonious  song; 

Charm 'd  by  these  strings,  trees  starting  from  the  ground, 

Have  follow'd  with  delight  the  powerful  sound, 

Thus  consecrated,  thy  Grynean  grove 

Shall  have  no  equal  in  Apollo's  love. 

Earl  of  Roscomman- 

Mus&us  is  said  to  have  been  the  disciple  of  Orpheus,  and  to  have 
presided  over  the  Eleusynian  mysteries  long  celebrated  at  Athens 
with  solemn  rites — by  sacrifices,  prayers  and  ablutions.  Of 


48  rflSTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

his  poetry  but  a  few  fragments  remain.  That  he  held  a  high 
rank  as  a  poet  in  the  time  of  Virgil  is  evident  from  the  manner 
ih  which  he  is  noticed  in  the  sixth  book  of  the  J5neid. 

Quos  circumfusos  sic  est  affata  Sybylla 

Musaeum  ante  oranes;  medium  nam  plurima  turba 

Hunc  hubet,  atque  humeris  extantem  suspicit  altis. 

Leb.  VI.  666. 

To  these  the  Sybil  thus  her  speech  address'd ; 
And  first  to  him,  surrounded  by  the  rest, 
t  Towering  his  height  and  ample  was  his  breast , 

Say,  happy  souls,  divine  Musaetis  say. 

JDryden. 

The  doctrines  of  philosophy  or  religion  held  by  Musaeus  were 
nearly  the  same  as  those  of  his  master  Orpheus.  He  died  at 
Phaleroe,  and  the  Athenians  honored  his  memory  by  erecting  a 
public  monument.* 

The  poetry  of  these  ancient  poets  was  chiefly  composed  for, 
and  recited  in  the  services  of  religion,  and  they  were  regarded 
by  the  rude  and  superstitious  multitude,  not  only  as  men  of  supe- 
rior minds,  but  as,  in  some  degree,  partaking  of  divinity.  Mu- 
saus)  in  addition  to  his  merits  as  a  poet  and  philosopher,  was 
acquainted  with  so  much  of  the  healing  art,  as  to  enable  him  to 
administer  with  success  in  some  complaints,  and  he  is  said  to 
have  composed  a  poem  on  the  cure  of  diseases. 

To  the  poets  above  mentioned  succeeded  the  Bards  who  at- 
tended the  Grecian  chieftains  in  their  hostile  expeditions.  They 
were  the  Improvisatori  of  Greece,  and  recited  at  the  public  games, 
and  in  the  halls  of  their  chiefs,  the  "passing  tidings  of  the  times." 
accompanied  by  the  music  of  the  lyre  or  the  harp. 

Then  would  they  sing  achievements  high, 
And  circumstance  of  chivalry, 
Till  the  wrapt  traveller  would  stay 
Forgetful  of  the  closing  day. 

Scott. 

These  bards  travelled  over  Greece,  protected  from  insult  and 
injury,  by  their  sacred  characters,  and  were  every  where  treated 
with  respect  and  veneration,  as  favored  and  inspired  by  the  gods. 
They  were  intimately  acquainted  with  the  history  of  the  age  in 

*The  works  of  Orpheus,  Linus  and  Musseus  which  remain,  have  bt?n  collected  and 
published  in  a  volume  entitled  "Poetv  Minorrs  Grcf-i  " 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  4g 

which  they  lived,  and  were  rich  in  legendary  lore,  and  the  tales 
of  other  times.  From  them  Homer  collected  the  materials  for 
his  immortal  poems,  the  Illiad  and  Odyssey,  and  from  them  he 
acquired  that  knowledge  of  the  domestic  manners  of  the  Greeks 
and  Trojans,  during  the  heroic  ages,  with  which  he  has  relieved 
the  details  of  blood  and  carnasre. 

o 

No  poet  of  ancient  or  modern  times  has  acquired  the  celebrity 
of  JEZbraer,  nor  is  there  one  of  whose  life  less  is  known.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  900  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ, 
and  about  300  years  after  the  siege  of  Troy.  Since  his  repu- 
tation has  been  established,  and  fame  has  crowned  him  the 
"Prince  of  Poets,"  many  cities  have  disputed  the  honor  of  hav- 
ing given  him  birth ;  and  the  emperor  Adrian,  in  order  to  remove 
all  doubts  upon  the  subject,  consulted  the  oracle,  who  answered 
that  he  was  born  in  the  island  of  Ithaca.  Notwithstanding  the 
response  of  the  oracle,  the  learned  are  still  divided  upon  this 
question,  which  it  is  of  little  importance  to  settle ;  nor  is  it  ma- 
terial to  his  fame  to  know,  whether  he  was  born  blind,  or  became 
so  in  his  old  age,  or  whether  he  was  blind  at  all.  It  is  sufficient 
for  us  that  we  possess  his  works,  not  only  in  the  original,  but  in 
the  inimitable  translation  of  Pope — works,  which  disinterested 
and  impartial  criticism  has  placed  among  the  most  splendid 
literary  monuments  ever  erected  by  human  genius*  Homer  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  learned  criticism,  among  both  ancient 
and  modern  writers.  Whilst  Horace  assigns  him  an  elevated 
rank  as  a  moral  teacher,  even  above  some  of  the  most  celebra- 
ted philosophers,  Pythagoras,  a  distinguished  philosopher,  whose 
doctrines  and  opinions  were  derived  from  Egypt,  condemned 
him  to  Tartarus,  for  imparting  false  notions  of  the  deity,  and 
even  the  more  gentle  Plato  would  not  give  him  a  place  in  his 
ideal  republic.  Quintillian^  the  famous  rhetorician  of  Rome, 
whose  judgment  in  ancient  literature  is  much  esteemed,  speak- 
ing of  Homer,  says,  "Him  no  one  ever  excelled  in  sublimity 
on  great  topics,  in  propriety  on  small  ones;  but  whether  diffused 
or  compressed,  gay  or  grave ;  whether  for  his  abundance  or  his 
brevity,  he  is  equally  to  be  admired,  nor  is  he  supereminent  for 
his  poetical  talents  alone,  but  for  his  oratorical  also."  Msto- 
phanes,  whose  peculiar  genius  led  rather  to  ridicule  than  com- 
mendation, either  overcome  by  a  sense  of  justice,  or  awed  by  thr; 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


superior  genius  of  Homer,  thus  speaks  of  him  in  his  comedy 
of  the  "Frogs;" 


Homer,  bard  divine! 


Gods,  to  what  height  he  soars,  whilst  he  arrays 
The  warrior  bright  in  arras,  directs  the  fight 
And  with  heroic  virtue  fires  the  soul." 

Previously,  and  subsequently  also,  to  the  time  of  Homer,  a 
class  of  poets  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Rhapsodists,  wandered 
from  city  to  city,  from  place  to  place,  and  recited  verses,  either 
of  their  own  composition,  or  the  composition  of  others,  at  the 
public  festivals.  These  recitations  were  much  encouraged,  as 
they  were  intended  to  disseminate  among  the  listening  crowd,, 
maxims  of  wisdom  and  virtue;  they  were  thus  productive  of 
beneficial  effects  upon  the  hearts  and  minds  of  men,  and  were 
not  only  countenanced  but  encouraged,  by  the  great  Spartan 
and  Athenian  lawgivers,  Lycurgus  and  Solon.  Homer,  like  the 
Rhapsodists,  led  a  wandering  life,  and  recited  his  poems  at  the 
public  games  of  Greece.  To  these  Rhapsodists  is  posterity,  in 
i  great  degree,  indebted  for  the  preservation  of  the  Homeric 
poems;  they  recited  them  at  the  public  festivals,  one  reciting  a 
certain  portion,  and  another  taking  up  the  subject  where  the 
first  left  off.  Lycurgus  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  who 
collected  and  arranged  in  suitable  order,  the  fragments  of  the 
Illiad  and  Odyssey.  About  three  hundred  and  seven  years  after. 
Pisistratus,  who  loved  learning,  and  was  enraptured  with  the 
sublime  poetry  of  Homer,  caused  them  to  be  again  arranged  and 
corrected;  in  this  work  Solon  is  said  to  have  been  engaged. 
The  first  edition  of  Homer  after  the  invention  of  the  art  of 
printing,  appeared  at  Florence,  A.  D.  1488. 

Amongst  modern  writers,  who  aspire  to  the  rank  of  critics, 
the  Illiad  and  Odyssey  are  standing  subjects  of  notice — the 
standards  by  which  to  estimate  every  other  claim  to  poetical 
distinction,  and  whatever  diversity  of  opinion  may  prevail  upon 
minor  points,  all  agree  in  awarding  him  the  first  rank,  and  hailing 
him  as  the  "Father  of  Poetry." 


"By  Homer  taught,  the  modern  poet  sings, 
In  epic  strains  of  heroes,  wars  and  kings." 

In  a  work  like  this,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  we  should 
>nter  into  an  elaborate  exposition  of  the  beauty  and  sublimity 


3 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  51 

of  language  which  distinguish  this  great  poet,  and  his  peculiar 
claims  to  the  distinction  he  has  acquired ;  a  few  remarks  will  be 
sufficient  to  indicate  the  opinion  we  have  ourselves  adopted. 
'To  estimate  his  claims  we  need  not  go  hack  to  the  period  in 
which  he  lived,  and  compare  his  style  of  poetic  composition  with 
the  then  rude  state  of  society.  His  genius  would  irradiate  any 
country,  however  advanced  in  refinement,  and  however  exalted 
in  intellectual  improvement.  Virgil,  Dante,  Tasso,  Shakspeare, 
Milton  and  Byron,  have  respectively  thrown  a  hrilliant  light 
over  the  ages  in  which  they  lived,  and  have  gained  a  never-dying 
reputation,  and  a  never-fading  crown,  more  splendid  than  that 
which  adorns  the  victor's  brow,  yet  they  have  not  surpassed  him 
in  the  various  requisites  of  a  poet,  notwithstanding  all  the  ad- 
vantages of  education  and  of  refined  and  polished  society.  Homer 
was  nature's  poet,  endowed  with  a  mind  capable  of  grasping 
every  subject  he  examined,  and  a  bold  and  fertile  imagination, 
which  he  exercised  in  describing  scenes  and  events  in  the  most 
glowing  and  animated  style ;  his  language,  like  that  of  Shaks- 
peare, is  suited  to  his  subjects  no  less  accurately  than  the  actions 
and  sentiments  of  his  heroes  are  to  their  characters.  Hence  it 
is,  that  we  enter  into  all  the  feelings  of  the  different  actors,  in 
the  interesting  scenes  he  paints  so  vividly,  and  the  actions  he 
describes,  and  feel  ourselves  irresistibly  moved  to  lament  the 
unhappy  fall  of  the  ill-starred  house  of  Priam. 

The  place  that  contains  the  ashes  of  Homer,  is  equally  uncer- 
tain with  that  which  gave  him  birth.  Altars  and  temples  were, 
however,  erected  in  honor  of  him  in  various  cities,  and  divine 
honors  were  paid  him.  Among  the  most  distinguished  monu- 
ments to  his  memory  was  a  temple  erected  by  Ptolomy  Philopa- 
ter,  in  which  a  statute  was  placed,  surrounded  by  the  represen- 
tation of  the  seven  cities  that  contended  for  the  honor  of  his 
birth. 

The  period  in  which  Hesiod  flourished  is  uncertain;  the  most 
generally  received  opinion,  however,  is  that  of  Herodotus,  name- 
ly, that  he  was  contemporary  with  Homer.  Of  his  poems  two 
only  have  reached  us  entire ;  one  entitled  the  "Works  and  Days," 
the  other  the  "Theogony,  or  the  birth  of  the  Gods,"  together  with 
a  fragment  of  the  "Shield  of  Hercules."  The  poem  entitled 
"Works  and  Days"  is  divided  into  three  parts,  mythological, 
moral  and  didactic.  In  the  first  he  relates  to  the  fable  of  Pando 


£2  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

ra,  and  gives  a  description  of  the  several  ages  of  the  world,  which 
he  divides  into  five,  namely,  the  age  of  gold,  the  age  of  silver, 
the  age  of  brass,  the  age  of  demigods  and  heroes,  which  we  call 
the  heroic  age,  and  the  age  of  iron.  The  second  part  contains 
many  moral  reflections  addressed  to  his  brother  Perseus,  with 
whom  he  had  had  a  dispute  about  the  paternal  inheritance ;  the 
third  part  appears  to  be  principally  intended  for  husbandmen, 
being  a  kind  of  treatise  on  agriculture,  containing  many  useful 
precepts  and  instructions,  suited  to  the  then  state  of  agriculture, 
intermixed  with  moral  reflections  arising  from  the  contempla- 
tion of  the  works  of  nature.* 


Hesiod  gave 


The  useful  lesson  how  to  till  the  earth, 

And  marked  the  seasons,  when  to  sow  the  grain 

And  when  to  reap  ---  " 

From  this  work  Virgil  is  supposed  to  have  received  the  Mm 
idea  of  the  Georgics.  In  his  "Theogony"he  treats  of  the  gene- 
alogy of  the  gods,  and  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  advances 
opinions  which  modern  philosophers,  in  the  present  advanced 
state  of  science,  would  consider  absurd  and  ridiculous.  He  be- 
lieved tlwt  "first  of  all  existed  Chaos;  next  in  order  the  broad- 
bosomed  Earth,  and  then  appeared  Love,  the  most  beautiful  of 
immortals.  From  Chaos  sprung  Erebus  and  dusky  Night,  and 
from  Night  and  Erebus  sprung  Ether  and  smiling  Day.  But 
first  the  Earth  produced  the  starry  Heavens,  commensurate  with 
itself,  and  the  barren  sea;  then  combined  with  heaven  she  bore 
the  tremendous  Titans.  Then  were  born  to  heaven  and  earth, 
thunder,  lightning  and  the  flaming  bolt,  besides  eruption,  hurri- 
cane and  earthquake."  However  absurd  this  theory  may  ap- 
pear, it  is  at  least  as  rational  and  plausible  as  the  theories  of 
many  modern  philosophers,  particularly  as  that  of  DC 
who  was  of  opinion  that  man  began  his  career  as  a 
)  or  that  of  Kepler^  who  considered  the  earth  to  be  possessed 
of  living  faculties  and  a  circulating  vital  fluid;  that  all  the  par- 
ticles of  it  are  alive  and  possess  instinct  and  volition;  that  the 
organs  through  which  the  large  animal  breathes  are  the  moun- 
tains, and  that  mineral  veins  are  abcesses,  and  metals  the  pro- 
duct of  rottenness  and  disease.  The  fame  of  Hesiod  among 


'Coms  de  Litterature  par  La  Ilarne,  tome  1,  p.  195, 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

his  countrymen  was  not  founded  solely  upon  his  claims  to  the 
character  of  a  philosopher;  his  poetical  talents,  which  were 
held  in  high  estimation,  conferred  upon  him  greater  distinction. 
His  poetry,  if  it  does  not  possess  the  energy  and  sublimity  of 
Homer,  is  pronounced  by  competent  judges  to  be  remarkable 
for  ease  and  elegance  of  diction.  He  is  said  to  have  divided 
the  public  applause  with  Homer,  and  even  to  have  borne  off  the 
prize  of  poetry  in  a  contest  at  the  funeral  obsequies  of  Amphi- 
damas.  This  story  is  denied  by  La  Harpc,  who,  being  extremely 
jealous  of  the  reputation  of  Homer,  attributes  its  invention  to 
his  enemies,  who  were  envious  of  his  fame.* 

During  the  period  which  intervened  from  the  age  of  Homer  and 
Hesiod,  to  that  of  Thespis,  when  dramatic  poetry  was  introdu- 
ced, poetical  compositions  were  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the 
ode,  or  lyric  poetry,  so  called  from  its  being  intended  to  be  sung, 
accompanied  by  the  music  of  the  lyre.  "In  the  ode,"  observes 
Dr.  Blair,  "poetry  retains  its  first  and  most  ancient  form;  that 
form  under  which  the  original  bards  poured  forth  their  enthusi- 
astic strains,  praised  their  gods  and  their  heroes,  and  celebrated 
their  victories."  The  most  celebrated  poets  of  the  abovemen- 
tioned  period,  are  Archilocus,  Tyrtaus,  Alcceus  and  Sappho. 

Archilochus  was  a  poet  of  Paros,  who  flourished  about  716 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  He  wrote  many  elegies,  odes, 
satires  and  epigrams,  and  was  the  inventor  of  that  species  of 
verse  called  Iambic.  He  is  mentioned  by  Herodotus!  as  having 
written  some  Iambic  verses  on  the  murder  of  Candaules,  king  of 
Lydia,  who  had  imprudently  exposed  his  wife  to  the  view  of 
Gyges,  one  of  his  ministers.  Although  his  poetical  composi- 
tions are  said  to  have  been  of  so  licentious  a  character,  as  to 
cause  his  banishment  from  Lacedemon,  yet  they  are  pronoun- 
ced by  Quintillian  to  have  been  remarkable  for  their  ingenuity, 
their  elegance  of  style,  and  energy  of  language.  He  wrote 
so  severe  a  satire  on  Lycartibus^  who  refused  him  his  daughter 
in  marriage,  that  the  unhappy  man  hung  himself  in  despair. 
This  circumstance  is  mentioned  by  Horace,  in  his  epistle  to 
cenas,  in  the  first  book. 


Parios  ego  primus  iaoibos 


OstendiLatio;  numeros  animosque  secutus 
Jlrchilochi,  non  res,  et  agentia  verba  Lycarabeu. 


*  Cours  de  Litterature ,  tome  I ,  p.  195.    f  Clio.  ch.  12 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Ac  mene  foliis  ideo  brevioribus  ornes 
Quod  timui  mutare  modos  et  carminis  artem; 
Temperat  Jlrchilochi  niusam  pede  raascula  Sappho 
Temperat  Alceaeus. "  Lib.  1,  Ep.  19. 

To  keen  Iambics  I  first  tun'd  my  lyre, 

And  warm'd  with  great  Archilochus'  fire, 

His  rapid  numbers  chose,  but  shunn'd  with  care 

That  style  which  drove  Lycambusto  despair; 

I  fear'd  to  change  the  structure  of  his  line, 

And  shall  a  short-lived  wreath  be  therefore  mine? 

Sappho,  whose  verse  with  manly  spirit  glows 

And  great  Alcoeus  his  iambics  chose.  Francis. 

Horace  again  speaks  of  him  in  his  "Art  of  Poetry:'* 

Archilochum  proprio  rabies  armavit  iambo: 
Hunc  socci  cepere  pedem  grandesque  cothurni, 
Alternis  aptum  sermonibus,  et  populaus, 
Vicentem  strepitus, et  natum  rebus  agendis. 

De  Art.  Poet.  79. 

Archilochus,  with  fierce  resentment  warm'd, 
Was  with  his  own  severe  iambics  arm'd, 
Whose  rapid  numbers  suited  to  the  stage, 
In  comic  humor,  or  in  tragic  rage, 
With  sweet  variety  were  found  to  please, 
And  taught  the  dialogue  to  flow  with  ease; 
Their  numerous  cadence  was  for  action  fit, 
And  form'd  to  quell  the  clamors  of  the  pit. 

Francis. 

Tyrtceus  was  a  poet  of  Attica,  and  flourished  about  680  years 
before  Christ,  of  whose  compositions  nothing  remain  but  the 
fragments  of  a  few  elegies.  The  most  remarkable  circumstance 
in  the  life  of  this  poet,  is,  his  appointment  of  general  in  the  Lace- 
demonian army.  In  the  second  Messenian  war,  the  Lacedemo- 
nians being  hard  pressed  by  the  Messenians  under  their  heroic 
commander  Aristomines,  consulted  the  oracle,  who  directed 
them  to  apply  to  the  Athenians  for  a  general.  They  did  so,  and 
the  Athenians  sent  them  the  poet  Tyrt&us,  who  had  borne  arms, 
it  is  true,  but  had  never  attained  any  distinction  as  a  soldier,  nor 
commanded  as  a  general — he  was  sent  more  in  derision,  than 
with  any  expectation  that  he  would  retrieve  the  fallen  fortunes 
of  Sparta.  He  repaired,  however,  to  the  Spartan  camp,  where 
he  found  the  troops  dispirited  by  repeated  defeats  and  disasters, 
and  ready  to  fly  before  the  victorious  Aristomines.  Tyrtaus  pos- 
sessed neither  skill  nor  experience  as  a  commander,  but  he 


by  the  muse  inspir'd, 


To  deeds  of  arms  the  martial  spirit  fired." 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  35 

and  so  raised  the  drooping  spirits,  and  roused  the  dormant  cou- 
rage of  the  Spartans,  that  they  defeated  the  Messenians,  and  re- 
covered their  wonted  energies.  Such  was  the  power  of  poetry 
and  music,  and  such  the  influence  of  the  sacred  character  of  the 
bard.  Tyrtceus  was  afterwards  made  a  citizen  of  Lacedemon, 
and  treated  with  great  consideration  and  attention. 

Alcaus  was  a  lyric  poet  of  Mitylene,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos, 
and  lived  about  600  years  before  Christ.  Of  all  his  works,  but 
a  few  fragments  remain.  Quintillian,  on  whose  judgment  we 
have  already  had  occasion  to  rely,  praises  him  for  the  boldness 
of  his  satire,  and  the  moral  tendency  of  some  of  his  writings,  but 
acknowledges  that  he  is  sometimes  too  licentious — a  fault  which 
seems  to  attach  to  almost  all  the  ancient  poets,  and  from  which 
even  the  polished  and  courtly  Horace,  who  lived  in  a  more  re- 
fined age,  was  not  exempt.  He  was  contemporary  with  Sappho , 
and  one  of  her  ardent  admirers. 

"Alcoeus  strung  his  sounding  lyre 
And  smote  it  with  a  hand  of  fire; 
To  Sappho,  fairest  of  the  fair, 
Chaunting  the  loud  and  lofty  air." 

She,  however,  continued  insensible,  and  rejected  his  address 
Alc&us,  although  celebrated  as  a  poet,  was  not,  like  some  of  his 
brother  bards,  distinguished  as  a  warrior;  he  is  said  to  have  fled 
from  the  field  of  battle,  leaving  his  armor,  which  nis  enemies 
afterwards  hung  up  in  the  temple  of  Minerva,  as  a  monument  of 
his  disgrace. 

Sappho  was  born  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  and  was  not  only  ce- 
lebrated for  her  beauty  and  her  poetical  talents,  but  for  an  amo- 
rous and  voluptuous  disposition,  which  is  clearly  shown  in  the 
following  fragment  of  a  poem  she  addressed  to  her  mother,  whc 
had  probably  endeavored  to  restrain  her  prevailing  inclinations: 


•  Cease,  dear  mother,  cease  to  chide. 


I  can  no  more  the  golden  shuttle  guide, 
While  Venus  thus  through  every  glowing  vein. 
Asserts  the  charming  youth's  resistless  reign. 

She  composed  nine  books  of  odes  and  lyric  verses,  besides  epi- 
grams and  elegies,  which  were  extant  in  the  time  of  Horace, 
who  takes  frequent  occasion  to  speak  of  the  poetess,  who  was 
called,  on  account  of  the  splendor  of  her  poetical  genius,  the 
tenth  muse-,  thus  in  the  KSth  ode  of  the  second  book: 


56  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Quam  paene  furvae  regna  Prosepinae, 
Et  judicantem  videmus  JEacum, 
Sedesque  discretas  piorum,  et 
.3£oliis  fidibus  querentem 
Sappho  puellig  de  popularibus. 

Lib.  2,  Car.  1& 

How  near  was  I  those  dreary  plains 

Where  Pluto's  auburn  consort  reigns, 

Where  awful  sits  the  judge  of  Hell, 

Where  pious  spirits  blissful  dwell, 

Where  Sappho  in  melodious  strains 

Of  cruel  calumny  complains.  Francis. 

"Among  the  multitude  of  poets  of  antiquity,"  says  Addisou-, 
"there  is  none  whose  fragments  are  so  beautiful  as  those  of  Sap- 
pho. One  may  see,  by  what  is  left  of  them,  that  she  followed 
nature  in  all  her  thoughts,  without  descending  to  those  little 
points,  conceits  and  turns  of  wit,  with  which  many  of  our  modern 
lyrics  are  so  miserably  infected.  Her  soul  seems  to  have  been 
made  up  of  love  and  poetry.  She  felt  the  passion  in  all  its 
warmth,  and  described  it  in  all  its  symptoms."  Of  the  numerous 
works  of  Sappho,  two  only  remain,  which  are  universally  con- 
sidered as  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  ancient  lyric  poetry, 
that  has  survived  the  ravages  of  time,  and  which  are  sufficient  to 
confirm  the  character  antiquity  has  given  her,  of  possessing  a 
sublimity  of  genius  which  has  been  seldom  equalled.  We  will 
here  present  the  fragments  alluded  to,  in  the  beautiful  version 
of  Ambrose  Phillips.  The  first  is  part  of  an  ode  preserved  by 
Longinus, the  celebrated  critic: 

Blest  as  the  immortal  gods  is  he 
The  youth  who  fondly  sits  by  thee, 
And  hears  and  sees  thee  all  the  while 
Softly  speak  and  sweetly  smile. 

'Twas  this  deprived  my  soul  of  rest, 
And  rais'd  such  tumults  in  my  breast; 
For  while  I  gaz'd,  in  transport  tost, 
My  breath  was  gone,  my  voice  was  lost  • 

My  bosom  glow'd ;  the  subtle  flame 
Ran  quick  through  all  my  vital  frame ; 
O'er  my  dim  eyes  a  darkness  hung; 
My  ears  with  hollow  murmurs  rung, 

In  dewy  damps  my  limbs  were  chill'd ; 
My  blood  with  gentle  horrors  thriU'd ; 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  57 

My  feeble  pulse  forgot  to  play ; 
I  fainted,  sunk  and  died  away. 

The  following  "Ode  to  Venus,"  has  also  been  preserved,  and 
is  a  brilliant  example  of  lyric  poetry: 

O  Venus,  beauty  of  the  skies, 
To  whom  a  thousand  temples  rise, 
Gaily  false  in  gentle  smiles, 
Full  of  love-perplexing  wiles; 

0  goddess,  from  my  heart  remove 
The  wasting  cares  and  pains  of lov«. 

If  ever  thou  hast  kindly  heard 
A  song  in  soft  distress  preferr'd, 
Propitious  to  my  tuneful  vow, 
Oh,  gentle  goddess!  hear  me  now. 
Descend,  thou  bright,  immortal  guest, 
In  all  thy  radiant  charms  confess'd 
Thou  once  did  leave  almighty  Jove, 
And  all  the  golden  roofs  above : 
The  car  thy  wanton  sparrows  drew, 
Hovering  in  air  they  lightly  flew; 
As  to  my  bower  they  wing'd  their  way, 

1  saw  their  quivering  pinions  play. 

The  birds  dismiss'd  (while  you  remain,) 
Bore  back  their  empty  car  again: 
Then  with  looks  divinely  mild, 
In  every  heavenly  feature  smil'd, 
And  ask'd  what  new  complaints  I  made, 
And  why  I  call'd  you  to  my  aid. 

Whatphrenzy  in  my  bosom  rag'd, 
And  by  what  care  to  be  assuag'd? 
What  gentle  youth  I  would  allure, 
Whom  in  my  artful  toils  secure? 
Who  does  thy  tender  heart  subdue, 
Tell  me,  my  Sappho,  tell  me  who? 

Though  now  he  shuns  thy  longing  arms, 
He  soon  shall  court  thy  slighted  charms; 
Thou  now  thy  offerings  he  despise, 
He  soon  to  thee  shall  sacrifice; 
Though  now  he  freeze,  he  soon  shall  burn, 
And  be  thy  victim  in  his  turn. 

Celestial  visitant,  once  more 
Thy  needful  presence  I  implore! 
In  pity  come,  and  ease  my  grief, 
Bring  my  distemper'd  soul  relief, 
Favor  thy  suppliant's  hidden  fires, 
And  give  me  all  my  heart  desires. 
8 


58  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Sappho  fell  violently  in  love  with  a  youth  named  Phaon,  who 
did  not  return  her  love;  in  a  fit  of  desperation  she  threw  her- 
self into  the  sea,  from  the  promontory  of  Luecate  in  Acarnania, 
and  perished. 

Lyric  poetry  being  susceptible  of  different  ornaments,  and 
adapted  to  a  variety  of  subjects,  from  "grave  to  gay,"  and  admit- 
ting also  the  boldest  and  most  excursive  flights  of  imagination, 
long  continued  a  favorite  species  of  poetic  composition.  Ac- 
companied with  the  music  of  the  lyre,  it  elevated  the  soul  to 
heavenly  contemplations,  brightened  the  brow  upon  which  "pale 
melancholy"  sat,  or  stilled  the  turbulent  passions  which  too  of- 
ten mar  the  pleasures  of  social  intercourse,  and  destroy  domestic 
happiness.  Lyric  poetry,  which  had  been  cultivated  with  so 
much  care  by  the  Lesbian  poetess,  and  attained  so  high  a  cha- 
racter, did  not  degenerate  at  her  death.  The  seed  having  been 
sown  in  a  generous  and  prolific  soil,  and  carefully  nourished, 
produced  poets  of  almost  every  grade  of  excellence.  Some 
were  distinguished  for  a  vehemence  and  energy  of  language  and 
boldness  of  style,  which  commanded  attention,  and  others  for  a 
peculiar  grace  and  elegance  of  manner  and  sweetness  of  expres- 
sion, which  interested  the  heart  and  subdued  the  feelings;  of 
the  one  the  "deep  mouthed  Pindar"  is  a  striking  example,  of 
the  other  the  plaintive  Simonides.  Before,  however,  we  speak 
of  them,  let  us  advert  to  a  new  species  of  poetry,  different  in  its 
objects  and  character,  from  that  which  had  before  been  culti- 
vated, and  which,  in  its  progress  from  rudeness  to  refinement, 
produced  sensible  effects  upon  the  manners  and  habits,  not  only 
of  the  people  of  Greece,  but  in  later  times,  upon  the  manners  of 
other  nations  of  Europe — we  mean  dramatic  poetry.  The 
moral  or  immoral  tendency  of  the  drama,  its  beneficial  or  hurt- 
ful effects  upon  society,  we  leave  to  others  to  examine,  as  it  does 
not  fall  within  our  plan.  We  mean  only  to  speak  of  the  drama 
and  dramatic  poetry,  as  constituting  an  important  link  in  the 
chain  of  literary  history  we  are  attempting  to  review. 

In  the  early  ages  of  Greece,  before  the  refinements  of  society 
had  produced  a  change  in  the  public  taste,  tragedy,  or  the  dra- 
ma, (then  synonomous  terms,)  was  rude  and  imperfect,  being  no- 
thing more  than  a  song  or  hymn,  called  the  "Song  of  the  Goat," 
which  was  chanted  by  a  chorus  of  singers,  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  vintage,  in  honor  of  the  god  Bacchus.  These  Hymns  were 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^ 

sometimes  sung  by  the  whole  company,  and  sometimes  by  sepa- 
rate bands,  answering  each  other  alternately,  and  bore  but  a 
faint  resemblance  to  the  drama  in  its  present  state.  About  550 
years  before  Christ,  Thespis  appeared,  who  effected  an  important 
change,  by  the  introduction  of  an  additional  actor,  who  threw 
some  variety  into  the  entertainment,  and  relieved  the  singers  by 
the  recitation  of  some  sad  or  merry  tale,  as  the  temper  of  the 
moment  dictated,  which  was  unconnected,  however,  with  the 
main  piece.  The  stage  upon  which  Thespis  and  his  "vagrant 
players"  exhibited  their  dramatic  pieces,  was  nothing  more  than 
a  cart,  in  which  they  travelled  from  town  to  town,  from  village 
to  village,  as  do  our  modern  mountebanks. 

Ignotum  tragicae  genus  invenissecamoenae 
Dicitur,  et  plaustris  vexisse  poemata  Thespis 
Quae  canerent  agerentque  peruncti  fcecibus  ora. 

Hor.DeArt.Poet.215. 

Thespis,  inventor  of  the  tragic  art, 

Carried  his  vagrant  players  in  a  cart; 

High  o'er  the  crowd  the  mimic  tribe  appear'd 

And  play'd  and  sung,  with  lees  of  wine  besmear'd. 

Francis. 

From  this  rude  and  imperfect  state,  in  the  short  space  of  se- 
venty years,  by  the  efforts  of  succeeding  dramatic  writers,  and 
particularly  of  JEschylus,  Euripides  and  Sophocles,  it  arrived  at 
its  more  perfect  form;  that  form  which,  in  a  great  measure,  it 
still  retains,  and  may  still  be  distinguished,  even  under  the  garb 
of  modern  improvement.  Among  modern  critics,  it  has  been  a 
subject  of  controversy,  whether  tragedy  was  invented  by  Thespis, 
or  whether  he  is  only  entitled  to  the  honor  of  having  changed 
the  "Song  of  the  Goat"  into  something  like  a  regular  drama. 
The  controversy  can  only  be  considered  important  in  a  literary 
point  of  view,  as  tending  to  establish  the  time  when,  and  by 
whom,  dramatic  poetry  was  first  cultivated.  Plutarch,  in  his 
life  of  Solon,  says,  "Thespis  gave  rise  and  beginning  to  the  very 
rudiments  of  tragedy;"  in  the  passage  above  quoted,  Horace 
calls  him  the  "inventor  of  the  tragic  art,"  and  from  the  Arunde- 
lian  marbles,  or  Parian  chronicle,  which  contain  a  chronologi- 
cal account  of  the  remarkable  events  in  the  history  of  Greece, 
from  the  time  of  Cccrops  to  the  year  354  before  Christ,  we 
learn,  that  "Thespis  was  the  first  who  gave  being  to  tragedy.** 


60 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 


Of  the  dramatic  productions  of  Thespis,  none  are  now  extant, 
if  indeed,  any  were  ever  committed  to  writing.  It  would  be 
interesting  to  compare  the  rude  dramas  of  Thespis,  with  the 
more  refined  productions  of  his  illustrious  successors. 

Thespis  was  succeeded  in  dramatic  poetry  by  Patrinas,  a  Pe- 
loponessian.  He  wrote  many  dramatic  pieces,  most  of  which 
were  of  a  satirical  character,  and  were  performed  as  farces. 
Actuated  by  a  spirit  of  improvement,  he  effected  a  change  in 
the  mode  of  representation.  He  procured  the  erection  of  a 
theatre  for  dramatic  exhibitions,  plays  still  continuing  to  be  ex- 
hibited on  scaffolds,  or  in  booths.  He  also  attempted  to  make 
some  alteration  in  the  musical  part  of  the  entertainment,  by 
which  the  confusion  of  voices  would  be  avoided,  and  the  recita- 
tive more  distinctly  heard  by  the  audience;  the  people,  howev- 
er, were  too  strongly  attached  to  the  ancient  mode  to  which  they 
were  accustomed,  to  submit  to  the  alteration.  They  opposed 
it  with  so  much  violence,  the  Patrinas,  to  appease  the  tumult, 
came  forward,  and  accompanied  with  music  and  dancing,  re- 
cited the  following,  one  of  the  few  productions  of  his  mus' 
which  has  been  preserved : 

What  means  this  tumult?  why  this  rage? 

What  thunder  shakes  the  Athenian  stage? 

'T  is  frantic  Bromius  bids  me  sing, 

He  tunes  the  pipe,  he  smites  the  string; 

The  Dryads  with  their  chief  accord, 

Submit  and  hail  the  drama's  lord. 

Be  still  and  let  distraction  cease 

Nor  thus  profane  the  muse's  peace; 

By  sacred  fiat  I  preside 

The  minstrel's  master  and  his  guide; 

He  while  the  chorus  strains  proceed, 

Shall  follow  with  responsive  reed; 

To  measur'd  notes  whilst  they  advance 

He  in  wild  maze  shall  lead  the  dance. 

So  generals  in  the  front  appear 

Whilst  music  echoes  from  the  rear; 

Nor  silence  each  discordant  sound, 

For  see,  with  ivy  chaplet  crown'd, 

Bacchus  appears!  he  speaks  in  me, 

Hear  and  obey  the  god's  decree.  Cumberland. 

The  effect  of  this  address  was  such  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected ;  the  people  were  appeased,  and  Patrinas  was  permitted 
•to  carry  into  effect  the  improvements  he  had  introduced.  He 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  bi 

;s  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  fifty  dramatic  pieces.  Ano- 
ther dramatic  poet  of  this  period  was  Phrynicus;  he  was  the  first 
who  introduced  the  female  mask  upon  the  stage.  His  most  ce- 
lebrated production  was  the  tragedy  of  the  "Siege  of  Miletus,'" 
founded  upon  the  sacking  of  that  city  by  the  Persian  troops. 
The  representation  of  this  tragedy  had  such  an  effect  upon  the 
Athenian  audience,  that  the  magistrates  prohibited  its  future  re 
presentation,  and  condemned  the  author  to  a  fine  of  a  thousand 
drachmas. 


* 

CHAPTER  III. 

Literature  of  the   Greeks.      Stesichorus.     Anacreon.      Simonides. 
Pindar.     JEschylus.     Sophocles.     Euripides. 

Stesichorus^  Anacreon  and  Simonides,  flourished  about  the  same 
time,  that  is  about  520  years  before  Christ.  Tesias^  or  Stesicho- 
rus,  was  a  native  of  Himera,  in  Sicily,  and  although  he  was  not  a 
native  of  Greece,  and  did  not  even  visit  that  country  until  late 
in  life,  we  have  chosen  to  introduce  him  in  this  place,  among 
Greek  poets,  because  of  the  fame  he  acquired,  and  because  his 
poems  were  written  in  the  Doric,  one  of  the  dialects  into  which 
the  language  of  Greece  was  divided.  He  composed  twenty-six 
books  of  odes,  epigrams  and  other  poems,  all  of  which  are  lost, 
except  a  few  fragments  scattered  through  the  works  of  later 
writers.  As  a  lyric  poet  he  is  said  to  have  been  unequalled  ex- 
cept by  Pindar,  and  he  is  even  said  to  have  equalled  Homer  in 
sublimity  and  grandeur  of  conception,  and  energy  and  eloquence 
of  language.  He  held  a  distinguished  place  in  the  affections  of 
his  countrymen,  and  when  he  died  in  the  city  of  Catana,  in  the 
island  of  Sicily,  he  was  buried  at  the  public  expense;  a  tomb  was 
erected  to  his  memory,  near  one  of  the  city  gates,  which  was 
afterwards  called  by  his  name,  and  divine  honors  were  decreed 
him. 

Anacreon,  whose  fame  is  familiar  to  all  lovers  of  wine  and 
mirth,  and  who  is  well  known  in  modern  times  and  to  English 
readers,  by  means  of  the  elegant  translation  of  his  odes  by  Moore? 


£2  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

was  born  at  Teos,  a  city  of  Ionia.  He  was  early  distinguished 
for  his  poetical  abilities;  his  lively  character  and  social  disposi- 
tion strongly  recommended  him  to  those  of  similar  character,  to 
whom  the  fascinations  of  the  sparkling  bowl  presented  irresisti- 
ble allurements.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Polycrates,  tyrant 
of  Samos,  and  of  Hipparchus,  son  of  Pisistratus,  both  liberal  pat- 
rons of  learning  and  learned  men,  the  latter  of  whom  sent  a  fifty- 
oared  galley  to  bring  him  from  Teos  to  Athens.  Of  the  poetry 
of  Anacreon  it  may  with  justice  be  said,  that  "the  principal  char- 
acteristic beauties  consist  of  a  singular  simplicity  of  diction,  a 
careless  felicity  and  uncommon  delicacy  of  expression,  and  al- 
though almost  exclusively  devoted  to  amatory  and  bachanalian 
subjects,  they  exhibit  a  wonderful  fertility  of  invention  and  va- 
riety of  illustration."  The  moral  character  of  Anacreon  has 
been  variously  represented,  as  it  has  been  the  subject  of  investi- 
gation by  his  friends,  or  his  enemies,  both  of  whom  have,  no  doubt, 
suffered  their  partialities  and  prejudices  to  carry  them  too  far, 
to  enable  them  to  form  a  correct  estimate.  On  the  one  hand  he 
has  been  represented  as  a  drunkard — as 


" . old  Anacreon  wet  with  wine, 

And  crown'd  with  wreathes  of  Lesbian  vine." 

On  the  other  he  is  described  as  worthy  of  imitation  in  private 
and  domestic  life — as  a  model  of  moral  purity.  If  the  senti- 
ments of  an  author,  as  contained  in  his  works,  are  to  be  consid- 
ered as  evidences  of  his  real  character  and  opinions,  and  if  the 
celebration  of  love  and  wine  in  poetic  numbers,  involve  immo- 
rality, then  the  character  of  Anacreon  cannot  escape  the  censure 
of  the  rigidly  moral.  Although  he  may  not  have  been  an  habit- 
ual drunkard,  we  think  his  devotion  to  the  "jolly  god,"  and  his 
fondness  for  wine,  are  manifest  in  almost  every  line  of  his  work?. 

"Mix  me,  child,  a  cup  divine, 
Crystal  water,  ruby  wine; 
Weave  the  frontlet  richly  flushing, 
O'er  my  wintry  temples  blushing. 
Mix  the  brimmer;  Love  and  I 
Shall  no  more  the  gauntlet  try, 
Here — upon  this  holy  bowl 
I  surrender  all  my  soul. 


To-day  I'll  haste  to  quaff  my  wine 

As  If  to-morrov?  ne'er  should  shine 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  33 

But  if  to-morrow  comes,  when  then — 
I'll  haste  to  quaff  my  wine  again. 
And  thus  while  all  our  days  are  bright, 
Nor  time  has  dimm'd  their  blooming  light, 
Let  us  the  festal  hours  beguile 
With  mantling  cup  and  cordial  smile, 
And  shed  from  every  bowl  of  wine, 
The  richest  drop  on  Bacchus'  shrine!" 

Besides  odes  and  epigrams,  Anacreon  is  said  to  have  written 
elegies  and  hymns,  nearly  all  of  which  have  perished  in  the  gen- 
eral wreck  of  ancient  learning.  The  following  beautiful  "Re- 
flections at  sea,  on  a  moonlight  evening,"  show  that  although 
the  praises  of  wine  principally  occupied  the  muse  of  Anacreon, 
yet  she  sometimes  tuned  her  lyre  to  other  strains. 

'"T  is  sweet,  upon  the  vessel's  side 

To  stand,  and  view  the  passing  tide, 

Sadly  to  mark  the  silent  scene 

In  summer  evening's  close  serene: 

To  muse  on  one,  who  far  away, 

Perhaps  beholds  his  setting  ray ; 

And  at  the  sight  may  think,  the  while, 

What  welcome  words,  what  cheerful  smile, 

Shall  greet  the  youth  whose  love  taught  toil 

Has  driven  her  from  his  native  soil. 

Such  thoughts  can  sweetly  soothe  the  soul 
That  bends,  a  slave,  to  Love's  control! 
Heedless  he  hears  old  ocean  roar, 
And  waste  his  fury  on  the  shore; 
Tranquil  and  calm,  he  boldly  braves 
The  howling  hurricane  and  dashing  waves. 

Gay  Hope  then  yields  with  brightest  rays 
The  prospect  of  his  future  days. 
Around  his  couch  she  darts  her  beams 
And  bathes  in  bliss  his  shadowy  dreams 
In  gloomy  hours  a  silent  tear 
May  mark  the  steps  of  life's  career: 
To  distant  climes  when  forc'd  away 
He  sadly  chides  the  lingering  day: 
Yet  Hope  is  kindly  hovering  nigh, 
His  soul  to  sooth,  his  tear  to  dry. 
Soft  she  whispers  future  pleasures 
Tasting  Cupid's  richest  treasures."* 

Simonides  was  not  only  celebrated  as  a  poet,  but  from  the 
moral  tendency  and  philosophical  character  of  his  writings,  was 

*  For  the  above  translations  of  Anacreon,  I  am  indebted  to  the  interesting  "Memoirs 
of  Anacreon,"  by  John  E.  Hall,  Esq.  published  in  the  "Port  Folio." 


,j  .  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

ranked  among  the  philosophers  of  the  age.  He  stood  high  in 
the  estimation  of  his  countrymen,  and  enjoyed  the  particular 
friendship  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  his  time,  among 
whom  were  Hipparchus  of  Athens,  and  Pausamas,king  of  Lace- 
demon.  His  poetical  compositions  consisted  of  odes,  elegies, 
epigrams  and  dramatic  pieces,  but  he  was  more  distinguished 
as  an  elegiac  than  a  lyric  poet.  His  elegies  particularly  were 
remarkable  for  their  elegance  of  language,  and  the  plaintive  and 
pathetic  strain  in  which  they  were  composed,  which  moved  and 
interested  the  feelings.  "No  person  was  ever  better  acquainted 
with  the  sublime  and  delightful  art  of  interesting  and  moving 
the  passions;  nor  did  any  one  paint  with  greater  exactness  those 
situations  and  misfortunes  which  excite  pity.  It  is  not  the  poet 
to  whom  we  are  attentive;  we  hear  the  cries  and  groans  of  a 
distracted  family,  which  weeps  the  death  of  a  father  or  a  son; 
we  see  an  affectionate  mother  struggling  with  her  son  against 
the  fury  of  the  waves,  while  a  thousand  gulfs  yawn  on  all  sides, 
and  menace  her  with  a  thousand  deaths;  the  shade  of  Achilles 
rises  from  the  bottom  of  the  tomb,  and  announces  to  the  Greeks, 
about  to  quit  the  shores  of  Illium,  the  innumerable  calamities 
which  await  them  by  sea  and  land."*  Simonides  is  reproached 
Avith  ingratitude,  and  with  being  the  first  who  prayed  for  hire. 
He  died  at  about  ninety  years  of  age.  A  few  fragments  only 
remain  of  the  numerous  pieces  of  which  he  was  the  author. 

Pindar  was  born  at  Thebes  in  Boeotia,  about  521  years  before 
Christ,  and  is  distinguished  at  the  "great  father  of  lyric  poetry." 
He  was  early  trained  to  music  and  poetry  under  Myrtis,  a  woman 
distinguished  for  her  talents,  and  soon  acquired  a  considerable 
reputation.  Although  five  times  vanquished  in  poetic  contests 
with  Cormna,  a  poetess  of  Tanagra,  near  Thebes,  and  who  was 
also  a  pupil  of  Myrtis,  he  gained  the  prize  at  the  Olympic  games, 
and  was  crowned  in  the  presence  of  assembled  Greece.  His 
odes,  which  are  all  that  remain  of  his  writings,  are  much  ad- 
mired for  "sublimity  of  sentiment,  grandeur  of  expression,  energy 
and  magnificence  of  style,  boldness  of  metaphor,  harmony  of 
numbers,  and  elegance  of  diction."  Horace  compares  him  to  a 
river  swollen  by  sudden  rains  overflowing  its  banks. 

*  Travels  of  Anach.  vol.  VI.  153.  Lon.  ed 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE-  $5 

Monte  decurrens  velut  amnis,  imbres 
Quern  super  notas  aluere  ripas, 
Fervet,  immensusque  ruit  profundo 
Pindarus  ore. 

Lib.  4.  Car.  2 

As  when  a  river,  swollen  by  sudden  showers, 

O'er  it  known  banks,  from  some  steep  mountain  pours, 

So  in  profound,  immeasurable  song, 

The  deep  mouth 'd  Pindar,  foaming,  pours  along. 

Francis. 

Pindar  owed  his  fame  principally  to  the  hymns  he  composed 
in  honor  of  the  gods,  or  to  celebrate  the  triumph  of  the  victors 
in  the  public  games.  They  were  repeated  before  the  most 
crowded  assemblies  in  the  temples  of  Greece,  and  always  re- 
ceived with  enthusiasm.  After  the  death  of  Pindar,  a  statue 
was  erected  to  him  in  the  most  public  place  of  Thebes,  and  at 
the  celebration  of  one  of  the  Grecian  festivals,  a  portion  of  the 
victim  which  had  been  offered  in  sacrifice,  was  reserved  for  his 
descendants.  Alexander  the  great,  out  of  respect  to  the  poet, 
preserved  the  house  which  he  had  inhabited,  and  reduced  the 
rest  of  the  city  of  Thebes  to  ashes.  Thus  did  the  pride  of  vic- 
tory render  homage  to  the  superiority  of  genius. 

Pindar  enjoyed  the  friendship  of,  and  was  patronised  by,  The- 
ron  of  Agrigentum,  and  Hiero  of  Syracuse.  They  were  two  of 
the  most  celebrated  and  munificent  princes  of  the  age,  and  were 
distinguished  for  their  liberality  towards  learned  men.  Pindar 
took  frequent  occasion  to  celebrate  their  praises  in  lofty  strains* 
Of  Theron  he  speaks  as  follows: 

Ye  choral  hymns,  harmonious  lays, 

Sweet  rulers  of  the  Lyric  string! 
What  god,  what  hero's  godlike  praise, 

What  mortal  shall  we  sing? 
With  Jove,  with  Pisa's  guardian  god 
Begin,  O  muse,  the  Olympic  ode. 

Alcides,  Jove's  heroic  son, 

The  second  honor  claims; 
Who  offering  up  the  spoils  from  Augeas  won, 

Establish'd  to  his  sire  the  Olympic  games; 
When,  bright  in  wreaths  of  conquest,  Theron  shofte. 

Then  of  victorious  Theron  sing, 
Of  Theron ,  hospitable,  just  and  great ! 

Fam'd  Agrigentum's  honor'd  king, 
The  prop  and  bulwark  of  the  state ; 

A  righteous  prince!  whose  flowering  virtues  gftfce, 
The  venerable  item  of  his  illustrious  race, 
9 


tftj  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Hiero  having  gained  the  crown  in  the  Olympic  games,  Pindar 
alludes  to  that  event  in  one  of  his  odes,  and  thus  takes  occasion 
to  speak  of  his  friend  and  patron : 

Happy  he,  whose  glorious  brow 

Pisa's  honor'd  chaplets  crown ; 
Calm  his  stream  of  life  shall  flow, 

Shelter'd  by  his  high  renown. 
That  alone  is  bliss  supreme; 

Which  unknowing  to  decay/ 
Still  with  ever  shining  beam 

Gladdens  each  succeeding  day. 
Then  for  happy  Hiero  weave 

Garlands  of  jEolian  strains; 
Him  those  honors  to  receive 

The  Olympic  law  ordains. 
Nor  more  worthy  of  her  lay 

Can  the  muse  a  mortal  find ; 
Greater  in  imperial  sway, 

Richer  in  a  virtuous  mind. 

'Contemporary  with  Pindar  flourished  the  great  tragic  poet 
jfischylus.  He  was  an  Athenian  by  hirth,  and  was  early  distin- 
guished among  his  countrymen  for  poetic  genius.  Previously 
to  his  time,  tragedy  was  in  a  rude  and  imperfect  state,  notwith- 
standing the  talents  of  Thespis,  Pratinas  and  others,  had  been 
exerted  for  its  advancement.  Being  endowed  by  nature  with  a 
superior  genius,  and  a  mind  far  above  the  ordinary  stamp,  and 
conscious  of  the  imperfections  of  the  drama,  he  determined  upon 
endeavoring  to  reform  it,  which  he  soon  accomplished  by  intro- 
ducing radical  and  important  alterations,  not  only  in  the  struc- 
ture and  arrangement  of  tragedies,  but  in  the  manner  of  repre- 
sentation. Before  he  was  twenty-five  years  of  age,  several  oi 
his  tragedies  were  represented,  and  received  with  great  applause 
fey  an  Athenian  audience.  Melpomene  appeared  with  a  grace, 
spirit  and  dignity  unknown  before,  and  assumed  a  more  elevated 
rank  among  her  sister  muses.  The  improvements  he  effected 
in  the  manner  of  representation,  were  the  introduction  of  seve- 
ral actors  clothed  in  flowing  robes,  the  use  of  masks  by  the  per- 
formers, expressive  of  the  characters  they  represented,  and  the 
decoration  of  the  stage  with  appropriate  scenery. 

JEschylus  was  distinguished  for  his  valor  and  conduct  in  the     ^ 
celebrated  battles  of  Marathon  and  Platea,  and  the  sea  fight  of 
Salamis.  The  scenes  then  represented  before  him,  made  so  deep 
a.n  impression  upon  hi?  mind,  that  he  afterwards  skilfully  adapted 

' 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^ 

them  to  scenic  representation.     He  was  the  author  of  ninety 
tragedies,  forty  of  which  were  rewarded  with   public  prizes. 
Of  all  his  dramatic  productions,  seven  only  have  reached  us, 
which  have  been  translated  in  an  elegant  and  spirited  manner  < 
by  Potter. 

The  tragedies  of  ^Eschylus  have  all  the  marks  of  a  bold,  ori- 
ginal and  inventive  genius,  relying  solely  upon  its  own  powers  and 
energies — his  imagination  was  bold  and  comprehensive,  seizing 
upon  every  circumstance  fitted  to  produce  dramatic  effect,  and 
attract  the  attention  of  the  audience.  In  the  language  of  Cum- 
berland, "his  pen,  like  his  sword,  is  a  weapon  of  terror;  the  spec- 
tacle which  his  drama  exhibits,  is  a  sublime  scene  of  awful  mag- 
nificence, and  his  sentiment  and  style  are  in  unison  with  his 
subject."  In  no  one  of  his  tragedies  which  have  survived  the 
ravages  of  time,  are  the  various  qualities  that  constitute  the  su- 
blime of  dramatic  poetry,  more  conspicuously  displayed,  than  in 
that  of  Agamemnon,  written  when  lie  was  upwards  of  sixty  years 
e — a  time  of  life  when  the  mental  powers  of  most  men  are 
he  decline.  In  the  composition  of  this  tragedy,  and  particu- 
larly in  portraying  the  characters  of  Agamemnon,  Clytemnes- 
tra  and  Cassandra,  all  the  faculties  of  his  powerful  mind  appear 
to  have  been  called  into  action,  and  exerted  with  striking,  if  not  tre- 
mendous, effect.  In  the  Agamemnon  of  ^Eschylus,  there  is 
none  of  that  fierceness  of  character,  impetuosity  of  temper,  and 
haughtiness  of  demeanor,  which  characterise  the  Agamemnon 
of  Homer,  and  which  most  persons  would  look  for  in  the  proud 
leader  of  the  Grecian  armies;  on  the  contrary,  the  author  has 
invested  him  with  a  certain  mildness  of  disposition,  and  openness 
of  character,  which  are  admirably  contrasted  with  the  duplicity 
of  Clytemnestra  and  her  bold  and  fearless  spirit.  Her  duplici- 
ty is  strongly  marked  in  her  reception  of  Agamemnon,  after  an 
absence  often  years.  She  receives  him  with  every  mark  of  joy 
and  affection,  and  after  pouring  forth  her  complaints  for  his  long 
absence,  she  thus  addresses  him: 


•  at  thy  return 


The  gushing  fountains  of  my  tears  are  dried, 

Save  that  my  eyes  are  weak  with  midnight  watchuigg, 

Straining,  through  tears,  if  haply  they  might  see 

The  signal  fires,  that  claim'd  my  fix'd  attention. 

If  they  were  clos'd  in  sleep,  a  silly  fly 

Would,  with  the  slightest  murmuring,  make  me  start 


68  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

And  wake  me  to  more  fears.    For  thy  dear  sake,. 
All  this  I  suffer'd;  but  my  jocund  heart 
Forgets  it  all,  whilst  I  behold  my  lord, 
My  guardian,  the  strong  anchor  of  my  hope, 
The  stately  column  that  supports  my  house. 

If  any  suspicions,  with  regard  to  the  fidelity  of  Clytemnestra, 
had  existed  in  the  mind  of  Agamemnon,  the  above  speech,  so 
expressive  of  the  warm  and  devoted  attachment  of  a  fond  and 
affectionate  wife,  would  have  removed  all,  and  silenced  every 
whisper  of  jealousy.  The  mighty  genius  of  Shakespeare  him- 
self, intimately  as  he  was  acquainted  with  all  the  avenues  to  the 
human  heart,  would  have  found  it  difficult  to  have  devised  a 
speech  better  calculated  to  lull  suspicion.  It  has  the  desired 
effect;  Agamemnon  enters  his  palace  in  all  the  pomp  of  triumph, 
and  throwing  himself  completely  in  her  power,  falls  a  victim  to 
the  murderous  dagger  of  Clytemnestra.  After  having  commit- 
ted the  horrid  deed,  and  whilst  her  hands  are  yet  reeking  with 
a  husband's  blood,  she  avows  it  in  the/ollowing  language: 


when  the  heart  conceives 


Thoughts  of  deep  vengeance  on  a  foe,  what  means 
To  achieve  the  deed  more  certain,  than  to  wear 
The  form  of  friendship,  and  with  circling  wiles 
Inclose  them  in  the  insuperable  net? 

I  struck  him  twice,  and  twice 

He  groan 'd,  then  died.     A  third  time  as  he  lay 

I  gor'd  him  with  a  wound  5  a  grateful  present 

To  the  stern  god,  that  in  realms  below 

Reigns  o'er  the  dead;  there  let  him  take  his  seat. 

He  lay.  and  spouting  from  his  wounds  a  stream 

Of  blood, bedewed  me  with  his  crimson  drops. 

I  glory  in  them,  like  the  genial  earth 

When  the  warm  showers  of  heaven  descend  and  wake 

The  flowrets  to  unfold  their  vermiel  leaves. 

Her  bold  and  daring  character,  spurning  all  control  and 
careless  of  consequences,  is  further  exhibited  in  her  reply  to  the 
chorus : 

Chorus.    We  are  astonished  at  thy  daring  words 
Thus  vaunting  o'er  the  ruins  of  thy  husband. 

Clytem.    Me,  like  a  witless  woman,  would  thou  fright? 
I  tell  thee,  my  firm  soul  disdains  to  fear. 
Be  thou  dispos'd  to  applaud  or  censure  me, 
1  reck  not;  there  Agamemnon  lies, 
My  husband  slaughter'd  by  this  hand ;  I  dase 
ATOW  his  death  and  justify  the  deed 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^ 

The  character  in  the  modern  drama,  which  approaches  near- 
est to  that  of  Clytemnestra,  is  Lady  Macbeth — the  same  con- 
tempt of  danger  and  steadiness  of  purpose  mark  both.  Ano- 
ther important  and  interesting  character  is  Cassandra,  daughter 
of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  who  received  from  Apollo  the  gift  of  pro- 
phecy. In  the  division  of  the  spoils  of  Troy,  Cassandra  fell  to 
the  share  of  Agamemnon,  and  accompanied  him  to  Argos.  She 
is  there  inspired  with  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  and  foretells  her 
ewn  death,  which  she  meets  with  the  firmness  worthy  the  daugh- 
ter of  Priam  and  the  sister  of  the  noble  Hector. 


Such  though  it  be,  I  enter,  to  bewail 
My  fate,  and  Agamemnon's.     To  have  liv'd 
Let  it  suffice.     And  think  not,  gen'rous  strangers, 
Like  the  poor  bird  that  flutters  o'er  the  bough, 
Through  fear  I  linger.     But  my  dying  words 
You  will  remember,  when  her  blood  shall  flow 
For  mine,  woman's  for  woman's;  and  the  man's 
For  his  that  falls  by  his  accursed  wife. 

Chorus.     Thy  fate,  poor  sufferer,  fills  my  eyes  with  teaw. 

Cassandra.     Yet  once  more  let  me  raise  my  mournful  voice. 
Thou  sun,  whose  rising  beams  shall  bless  no  more 
These  closing  eyes!  you,  whose  vindictive  rage 
Hangs  o'er  my  hated  murderers,  oh,  avenge  me, 
Though,  a  poor  slave,  I  fall  an  easy  prey ! 
This  is  the  state  of  man :  in  prosperous  fortune 
A  shadow,  passing  light,  throws  to  the  ground 
Joy's  baseless  fabric;  in  adversity 
Comes  malice  with  a  sponge  moistened  in  gall, 
And  wipes  each  beauteous  character  away: 
More  than  the  first  this  melts  my  soul  to  pity. 


The  foregoing  extracts  will  serve,  in  some  degree,  to  exhibit 
the  train  of  thought  that  characterised  the  dramatic  genius  of 
jEschylus,  and  the  peculiar  spirit  which  animated  him  in  all  his 
dramatic  efforts.  He  lived  in  the  time  of  the  Persian  war,  and 
had  himself  been  distinguished  for  deeds  of  arms ;  hence  his 
great  object  was  to  animate  his  countrymen,  and  keep  alive  the 
heroic  fire  which  warmed  their  forefathers;  he,  therefore,  se- 
lected his  characters  from  the  heroic  sages,  and  depicted  vigo- 
rous and  free  minds,  superior  to  fear,  devoted  to  their  country, 
and  greedy  of  glory  on  the  field  of  battle. 

Notwithstanding  his  high  reputation,  when  the  tragedy  of  the 
"Furies"  was  represented,  his  enemies  charged  him  with  impie- 
ty, and  would,  probably,  have  put  him  to  detith,  had  it  not  been 


70  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

for  the  intercession  of  bis  brother  Amynias.  This  event  made 
such  an  impression  on  bis  mind,  that  he  retired  to  the  court  of 
Hiero,  king  of  Sicily,  where  he  died  in  the  sixty-ninth  year  of 
his  age.  The  Athenians  decreed  public  honors  to  his  memory. 
JEschylus  was  succeeded  by  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  two  equal- 
}y  celebrated  names  in  dramatic  history.  Sophocles,  at  the 
death  of  ^Eschylus,  was  in  the  twenty-seventh  year  of  his  age, 
and  like  him  was  distinguished  for  his  valor  in  several  battles; 
indeed,  having  attained  the  dignity  of  Archon,  he  commanded 
the  Athenian  armies  on  several  occasions,  with  considerable  re- 
putation. He  first  applied  himself  to  lyric  poetry,  and  on  his 
"sounding  lyre"  celebrated  the  victories  of  his  countrymen. 
Having  been  successful  in  a  poetic  contest,  instituted  by  the 
Athenians  to  celebrate  the  conquest  of  the  island  of  Scyros,  in 
which  jEschylus  is  said  to  have  been  a  competitor,  he  devoted 
the  remainder  of  his  days  to  the  cultivation  of  poetry,  in  which 
he  was  eminently  successful,  having  obtained  the  prize  twenty 
different  times.  The  splendid  triumph  which  he  gained  over 
^schylus,  greatly  increased  his  reputation,  and  gave  him  the 
empire  of  the  stage,  until  disputed  by  Euripides.  Sophocles 
was  the  author  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  tragedies,  only  seven 
of  which  arc  extant.  The  style  of  Sophocles  was  compared  by 
his  contemporaries,  to  the  honey  of  the  bee  for  sweetness,  hence 
he  obtained  the  name  of  the  "Bee."  His  children,  anxious  to 
become  possessed  of  his  estate,  charged  him  with  insanity  before 
the  Areopagus.  The  poet  appeared  before  his  judges,  and  by 
way  of  defence  read  his  last  tragedy  of  "CEdipus  at  Colonos,"  in 
which  he  represents,  in  the  most  glowing  colors,  the  conduct  of 
ungrateful  children,  and  then  inquired  of  his  judges,  whether 
the  author  of  such  a  production  could  justly  be  charged  with 
insanity.  He  was  acquitted,  to  the  shame  and  confusion  of  his 
children,  and  was  conducted  home  amidst  the  acclamations  of 
the  people.  Sophocles  lived  near  one  hundred  years  in  the  full 
enjoyment  of  his  faculties,  and  died  through  excess  of  joy,  when 
the  prize  was  decreed  to  "CEdipus,"  the  last  play  he  exhibited. 
The  following  beautiful  verses  on  his  death,  translated  from  the 
*  Treek  by  Addison,  cannot  fail  to  please  every  reader  of  taste  r 


Wind,  gentle  evergreen,  to  form  a  shade, 
Around  the  tomb  where  Sophocles  is  laid ; 
Sweet  ivy  wind  thy  boughs  and  intertwine 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  7  j 

With  blushing  roses  and  the  clustering  vine ; 
Thus  will  thy  lasting  leaves,  with  beauties  hung 
Prove  grateful  emblems  of  the  lays  he  sung; 
Whose  soul  exalted  like  a  god  of  wit 
Among  the  muses  and  the  graces  writ. 

The  tragedy  of  "CEdipus  Tyrannus,"  exhibits  the  dramatic 
powers  of  Sophocles,  to  as  great  advantage  as  any  other  of  his 
works  that  have  reached  us.  It  is  founded  upon  the  story  of 
the  murder  of  Laius,  king  of  Thebes,  by -his  son  CEdipus,  and 
the  subsequent  marriage  of  CEdipus  with  his  own  mother  Jocas- 
ta,  the  fruitful  sources  of  many  and  dire  calamities  to  him  and 
his  unhappy  family.  When  the  play  opens,  all  Thebes  is  in 
commotion,  in  consequence  of  a  dreadful  pestilence  which  was 
laying  waste  the  land;  people  of  all  ranks  are  thronging  to  the 
temple  of  Jupiter,  and  supplicating  at  his  altar  the  favor  of  the 
Deity.  CEdipus  is  informed  by  Creon,  who  has  just  returned 
from  Delphi,  that  the  cause  of  the  pestilence  is  the  murderer  of 
Laius,  and  that  before  it  ceases,  he  must  be  discovered  and  dri- 
ven from  the  country.  CEdipus,  alive  to  the  miseries  of  the  peo- 
ple, determines  to  use  every  means  to  discover  the  murderer. 
By  the  advice  of  Creon,  he  sends  for  a  blind  and  aged  prophet 
named  Tiresias,  whowas  looked  on  as  one  to  whom  all  futurity 
was  known: 

» as  among  the  gods 

All  knowing  Phoebus,  so  to  mortal  men 
Doth  sage  Tiresias,  in  foreknowledge  sure 
Shine  forth  preeminent ." 

Tiresias  being  brought  before  CEdipus,  hesitates  to  declare 
what  he  knows,  and  says, 

a 

You  know  not  what  you  ask ;  I'll  not  unveil 
Your  miseries  to  you.    I  will  not  make 
Myself  and  thee  unhappy. 

Still  urged,  he  reluctantly  declares  that. CEdipus  himself  is  the 
murderer, 

The  guilty  cause  of  all  the  city's  woes 

And  adds  that  he  is 


in  shameful  bonds  united 


With  those  he  loves,  unconscious  of  hisguil* 
fs  vet  most  guilty.  «   " 


72  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

This  declaration  of  Tiresias,  excites  the  rage  of  (Edipus, 
and  causes  a  quarrel  between  him  and  Creon,  who  he  be- 
lieves has  induced  the  prophet  thus  to  speak,  in  order  that  the 
commission  of  the  crime  being  fixed  on  him,  Creon  may  succeed 
to  the  crown.  The  character  of  QEdipus  is  drawn  with  a  mas- 
terly hand,  and  we  cannot  but  feel  deeply  interested  for  him  in 
his  various  and  trying  afflictions.  The  scene  between  (Edipus 
and  Jocasta,  when  he  informs  her  of  the  declaration  of  Tiresias, 
is  one  of  peculiar  and  striking  interest. 

(Ed.    Creon  says 

That  I  did  murder  Laius. 

Joe.    spake  he  this 

As  knowing  it  himself,  or  from  another? 

(Ed.     He  had  suborned  that  evil  working  priest ; 
And  sharpens  every  tongue  against  his  king. 

Joe.     Let  not  a  fear  perplex  thee,  (Edipus; 
Mortals  know  nothing  of  futurity, 
And  these  prophetic  seers  are  all  impostors; 
I'll  prove  it  to  thee;  know  then,  Laius  once, 
Not  from  Apollo,  but  his  priests,  received 
An  oracle  which  said,  it  was  decreed 
He  should  be  slain  by  his  own  son,  the  offspring 
Of  Laius  and  Jocasta;  yet  he  fell 
By  strangers ;  murder'd,  so  fame  reports, 
By  robbers  in  the  place  where  three  roads  meet: 
A  son  was  born,  but  ere  three  days  had  past 
The  infant's  feet  were  bored ;  a  servant  took 
And  left  him  on  the  pathless  mountain's  top 
To  perish  there;  thus  Phoebus  ne'er  decreed 
That  he  should  kill  his  father,  or  that  Laius, 
Which  much  he  fear'd,  should  by  his  son  be  slain. 

This  speech  of  Jocasta,  instead  of  removing  the  fears  of  (Edi- 
pus, tends  to  confirm  them;  the  time,  the  place,  the  description 
of  the  person  of  Laius,  and  the  subsequent  introduction  of  the 
shepherd,  to  whom  (Edipus  was  delivered  when  an  infant, 
cause  him  to  break  forth  in  the  following  pathetic  language: 

Ome!  at  length  the  mystery  's  unravelled 
!T  is  plain;  't  is  clear;  my  fate  is  all  determin'd: 
Those  are  my  parents  who  should  not  have  beea 
Allied  to  me;  she  is  my  wife,  e'en  she 
Whom  nature  had  forbidden  me  to  wed ; 
I  have  slain  him  who  gave  me  life,  and  now 
Of  thee,  O  light !  I  take  my  last  farewell ; 
For  (Edipus  shall  ne'er  behold  thee  more 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.^   *A|£  7-3 

The  death  of  Jocasta  by  her  own  hand,  is  thus  described: 

Messenger.    : the  queen 

Divine  Jocasta  's  dead. 

Cho,    Jocasta  dead!  say  by  what  hand? 

Mess. her  own; 

And  what  's  more  dreadful,  none  saw  the  deed. 
What  I  myself  beheld  you  all  shall  hear: 
Inflam'd  with  rage,  soon  as  she  reach'dthe  palace , 
Instant  retiring  to  the  nuptial  bed, 
She  shut  the  door,  then  rav'd  and  tore  her  hair, 
Call'd  out  on  Laius  dead,  and  bade  him  think 
On  that  unhappy  son  who  murder'd  him, 
And  stain'd  his  bed :  then  turning  her  sad  eyes 
Upon  the  guilty  couch,  she  curs'dthe  place 
Where  she  had  borne  a  husband  from  her  husband, 
And  children  from  her  child;  what  follow'd  then 
I  know  not,  by  the  cries  of  CEdipus 
Prevented,  for  on  him  our  eyes  were  fix'd 
Attentive. 

We  might  produce  many  more  extracts  from  this  tragedy,  of 
peculiar  beauty,  but  enough  has  been  given  for  our  purpose. 
Throughout  this  drama,  the  author  seems  to  have  had  in 
view,  to  impress  upon  the  mind,  that  whatever  is  decreed  by 
Divine.  Providence,  must  inevitably  come  to  pass,  notwithstand- 
ing every  human  means  may  Ije  employed  to  counteract  its 
designs;  and  he  concludes  with  the  following  sentiment: 

Let  mortals  hence  be  taught  to  look  beyond 
The  present  time,  nor  dare  to  say,  a  man 
Is  happy,  till  the  last  decisive  hour 
Shall  close  his  life  without  the  taste  of  wo. 

Euripides  was  born  at  Salamis,  the  day  on  which  the  army  of 
Xerxes  was  defeated  by  the  Greeks.  He  was  the  pupil  of  Socra- 
tes, the  celebrated  philosopher,  but  being  more  attached  to 
poetry  than  philosophy,  he  left  the  groves  of  the  academy  and 
the  banks  of  the  Illyssus,  and  entered  the  temple  of  the  muses, 
where  he  offered  his  devotions  to  Melpomene.  When  engaged 
in  the  composition  of  his  tragedies,  he  frequently  retired  from 
the  noise  and  bustle  of  the  busy  world,  to  a  dreary  and  solitary 
cave  in  the  neighborhood  of  Salamis.  He  is  represented  to  have 
been  proud,  haughty,  self-assuming  and  fond  of  contention. 
When  requested  by  the  audience  to  strike  out  some  offensive 
Hnes  in  one  of  his  plays,  he  came  forward  on  the  stage  and  told 
,  that  he  came  to  instruct  them,  not  to  receive  instruction* 

10 


74  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Between  Euripides  and  Sophocles,  a  bitter  enmity,  it  is  said, 
subsisted,  which  originated  with  the  former,  on  account  of  his 
extreme  jealousy  of  the  talents  and  rising  fame  of  the  latter. 
This  enmity  led  Aristophanes  to  introduce  them  both  in  some  of 
his  comedies,  in  which  he  ridiculed  them  with  success  and  hu- 
mor. The  following  judgment,  with  regard  to  these  two  dra- 
matic writers,  has  been  pronounced  by  a  learned  and  judicious 
critic.  "Euripides  is  esteemed  more  tender  than  Sophocles,. 
and  he  is  fuller  of  moral  sentiments.  But  in  the  conduct  of  his 
plays,  he  is  more  incorrect  and  negligent;  his  expositions,  or 
openings  of  the  subject,  are  made  in  a  less  artful  manner,  and 
the  songs  of  his  chorus,  though  remarkably  poetical,  have,  com- 
monly, less  connexion  with  the  main  subject,  than  those  of  So- 
phocles. Both  Euripides  and  Sophocles  are  elegant  and  beau- 
tiful in  their  style;  just  for  the  most  part,  in  their  thoughts,  they 
speak  with  the  voice  of  nature;  and,  making  allowance  for  the 
difference  of  ancient  and  modern  ideas,  in  the  midst  of  all  their 
simplicity,  they  are  both  touching  and  interesting."* 

Aristophanes  ,  in  his  comedy  of  the  "Frogs,*'  introduces  /Eschy- 
lus  and  Euripides  as  contending  for  preeminence  among  the  de- 
parted spirits;  the  contest  is  continued  for  some  time,  but  is  at 
length  so  managed,  as  to  be  decided  in  favor  of  the  former* 
jEschylus  is  evidently  the  favorite  of  tbc  poet,  and  lie  next 
ranks  Sophocles,  as  appears  from  the  following  speech  of  yF.5 
to  Pluto: 


.  ----  do  tliou  to  Sophocles 
Consign  my  seat,  to  keep  possession  of  it, 
In  case  I  should  not  again  return;  for  he 
Doubtless,  conies  nearest  me  in  tragic  powers?. 

. 

And  again,  in  a  scene  between  Xanthias  and  jEachusj  the-  lat- 
ter being  asked  why  Sophocles  did  not  put  in  his  claim  for  1hr 
iirst  rank  in  tragedy,  replies  : 


not  he,  by  Jove! 


When  hither  he  came  down,  he  instantlv 
Embraced  ./Eschylus,  shook  him  by  the  hand , 
And  in  his  favor  gave  up  all  pretensions. 

The  few  tragedies  of  Euripides  now  extant,  have  been  trans- 

•  Blair' e  Lecturea,  p.  471 . 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE-  75 

iated  into  English  by  Potter.  From  his  tragedy  of  "Iphigenia  in 
Aulis,"  we  will  make  a  few  extracts,  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
something  of  the  genius  and  style  of  the  author,  so  far  as  they  can  be 
exhibited  in  a  translation,  affording,  at  the  same  time,  an  oppojtu- 
nity  of  comparing  the  style  and  manner  of  the  three  great  tragic 
poets  of  Greece.  This  tragedy  is  founded  upon  the  sacrifice  of 
the  daughter  by  Agamemnon,  to  appease  the  wrath  of  Diana, 
whom  he  had  offended;  the  oracle  having  declared,  that  the 
Grecian  fleet  would  not  be  permitted  to  reach  the  Trojan  coast, 
unless  this  sacrifice  was  offered.  Agamemnon  had  been  pre- 
vailed upon  to  send  to  Argos  for  his  daughter,  under  pretence 
of  giving  her  in  marriage  to  Achilles;  but  afterwards  repenting 
his  determination,  and  feeling  a  return  of  that  natural  affection 
which  prompts  a  parent  to  protect  his  offspring,  he  endeavors  to 
prevent  her  coming;  his  schemes,  however,  are  detected  by  the 
vigilance  of  his  brother  Menelaus,  and  disappointment  ensues. 
Iphigenia  and  her  mother  Clytemnestra,  arrive  at  Aulis,  but  in- 
stead of  being  united  to  Achilles,  the  former  learns  that  her  in- 
nocent blood  is  to  be  shed  upon  the  altar  of  Diana. 

The  play  opens  with  a  dialogue  between  Agamemnon  and  an 
attendant,  whom  he  determines  to  despatch  to  Argos  with  a"  let* 
ter  to  Clytemnestra,  in  which  he  says: 

Whate'er  my  former  letter  gave  in  charge, 
Daughter  of  Leda,  this  I  write  to  thee, 
That  to  Eubcea's  winding  bay  thou  send  not 
Thy  daughter,  nor  to  Aulis  rising  high 
Above  the  waves;  for  to  some  other  time 
The  nuptials  of  thy  virgin  daughter  we  defer. 

The  messenger  is  detected  by  Menelaus,  and  the  letter  wrest- 
ed from  his  hands.  Menelaus  reproaches  Agamemnon  for  his 
"secret  baseness:" 

, when  thou  cam'st  to  Aulis,  with  the  tjoopa 

Of  Greece  in  arms,  to  nothing  didst  thou  sink, 
Astonish'd  at  thy  fortune,  by  the  gods 
Denied  a  gale  to  swell  thy  sails.     The  Greek* 
Required  thee  to  dismiss  the  ships,  nor  toil 
In  vain  at  Aulis;  how  dejected  then 
Thy  visage,  thy  confusion  then  how  great 
Not  to  command  the  thousand  ships,  and  fill 
The  fields  of  Priam  with  embattled  hosts? 
Me  then  thou  didst  address;  what  shall  I  do, 
•Or  what  expedient  find,  of  this  command. 


76  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

Of  this  high  honor  not  to  be  deprived? 
When  Chalcas  at  the  hallow'd  rites  declar'd 
That  to  Diana  thou  must  sacrifice 
Thy  daughter,  and  the  Grecians  then  should  sail, 
With  joy  thy  thoughts  were  heighten'd,  willingly 
The  virgin  as  a  victim  didst  thou  promise, 
And  freely,  not  by  force,  (urge  not  that  plea,) 
Dost  thou  despatch  a  message  to  thy  wife 
To  send  thy  daughter  hither,  the  pretence 
Her  nuptials  with  Achilles.     But  thy  mind 
Was  soon  averse,  and  secretly  devised 
Letters  of  different  import;  now  in  sooth, 
Thou  wilt  not  be  the  murderer  of  thy  daughter. 

When  informed  by  a  messenger  of  the  arrival  of  his  daughter* 
the  unhappy  father  laments  his  hard  fate  in  the  following  beau- 
tiful and  pathetic  language: 

. — •  In  what  a  chain  of  fate 

Am  I  enfolded?  Fortune,  wiser  far 
Than  all  my  vain  designs,  hath  closely  wrought 
Beneath  me.     What  advantages  attend 
Ignoble  birth?     They  are  allowed  to  weep, 
And  utter  sad  complaints;  but  to  the  noble 
This  is  denied ;  led  by  the  pride  of  rank 
Which  rules  us,  to  the  people  we  are  slaves. 

how  shall  I  address 

My  wife,  or  how  receive  her?     For  all  my  former  ills. 

Coming  unbidden,  she  hath  added  weight 

Of  new  distress:  yet  decency  required 

Her  presence  with  her  daughter,  to  attend 

Her  nuptials,  and  present  the  dearest  gifts: 

There  will  she  find  me  false.     But  thee,  O  thee, 

Unhappy  bride,  (bride  call  I  thee!  how  soon 

To  Pluto  to  be  wedded!)  how  I  pity! 

Methinks  I  hear  he*1  suppliant  voice  thus  speak: 

"My  father,  wilt  thou  kill  me?     May'st  thou  make 

Thyself  such  nuptials,  and  whoe'er  to  thee 

Is  dear." 

Unhappy  me !  what  ruin  hath  the  son 
Of  Priam  brought  on  me ! 

There  is  much  of  the  simplicity  of  nature  in  the  first  interview 
between  Agamemnon  and  Iphigenia: 

Jph.    My  father,  to  thy  arms  I  wish  to  run, 
Clasp'd  to  thy  bosom ;  dear  to  me  thy  sight 
After  such  absence:  be  not  angry  with  me. 

Aga.     Enjoy  thy  wish:  of  all  my  children  thou 
Hast  of  thy  fathei*  been  most  fond. 

Iph.    Absent  so  long,  with  joy  I  look  on  thee. 

Aga,    And  I  on  thee :  so  this  is  nmtaal  joy. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE,      ^••jtf  77 

Clytemnestra  having  learnt  from  a  servant  of  her  house,  the 
determination  of  Agamemnon  to  sacrifice  his  daughter,  to  ap- 
pease the  rage  of  the  goddess  Diana,  endeavors  to  dissuade  him 
from  his  purpose,  but  without  effect,  although  aided  by  the  pa- 
thetic and  eloquent  appeal  of  Iphigenia: 

Had  I,  my  father,  the  persuasive  voice 
Of  Orpheus,  and  his  skill  to  charm  the  rocks 
To  follow  me,  and  soothe  whome'er  I  please 
With  winning  words,  I  would  make  trial  of  it; 
But  I  have  nothing  to  present  thee  now, 
Save  tears,  my  only  eloquence,  and  these 

I  can  present  thee. 

Ah !  kill  me  not  in  youth's  fresh  prime. 

Sweet  is  the  light  of  heaven :  compel  me  not 
What  is  beneath  to  view.  I  was  the  first 
To  call  thee  father,  me  thou  first  didst  call 
Thy  child :  I  was  the  first  that  on  thy  knees 
Fondly  caress'd  thee,  and  from  thee  received 
The  fond  caress:  This  was  thy  speech  to  me 
Shall  I,  my  child,  e'er  see  thee  in  some  house 
Of  splendor,  happy  in  thy  husband,  live 
And  flourish  as  becomes  my  dignity? 
My  speech  to  thee  was,  leaning  against  thy  cheek, 
Which  with  my  han4  I  now  caress,  and  what 
Shall  I  then  do  for  thee?     Shall  I  receive 
My  father  when  grown  old,  and  in  my  house 
Cheer  him  with  each  fond  office,  to  repay 
The  careful  nurture  which  he  gave  my  youth? 
These  words  are  on  my  memory  deep  impress'd, 
Thou  hast  forgot  them  and  wilt  kill  thy  child. 

To  this  speech  so  affecting,  and  so  well  calculated  to  touch 
the  heart  of  the  most  obdurate,  Agamemnon  replies: 


to  dare  this,  is  dreadful  to  me, 

And  not  to  dare  it,  is  as  dreadful.     I  perforce 
Must  do  it.     What  a  naval  camp  is  here 
You  see,  how  many  kings  of  Greece  array'd 
In  glittering  arms;  to  Illium's  towers  are  these 
Denied  to  advance,  unless  I  offer  thee 
A  victim ;  thus  the  prophet  Cbalcas  speaks. 

Iphigenia  is  led  to  the  altar,  and  as  Chalcas  is  about  to  strike 
the  fatal  blow,  she  suddenly  disappears,  and  a  goat  of  uncom- 
mon size  and  beauty,  is  found  in  her  stead. 


the  sons  of  Atreus  stood, 


And  all  the  host,  fix'd  on  the  ground  their  eyes. 
The  priest  then  took  his  sword,  preferr'd  his  prayer, 
And  with  his  eye  raark'd  where  to  give  the  blow, 


79  HISTORY  OP  LITERATURE 


•  when  sudden  to  the  view 


A  wonder;  for  the  stroke  each  clearly  heard, 
But  where  the  virgin  was  none  knew;  aloud 
The  priest  exclaims,  and  all  the  host  with  shouts 
Rifted  the  air,  beholding  from  some  god 
A  prodigy,  which  struck  their  wondering  eyes 
Surpassing  faith  when  seen;  for  on  the  ground 
Panting  was  laid  a  hind  of  largest  bulk, 
In  form  excelling;  with  its  spouting  blood 
Much  was  the  altar  of  the  goddess  dew'd. 

Euripides  having  incurred  the  displeasure  of  his  own  country- 
men, retired  to  the  court  of  Archelaus,  king  of  Macedonia,  who 
honored  him  with  his  favor  and  friendship.  His  end  was  unfor- 
tunate, having  been  devoured  by  dogs  in  the  seventy-eighth  year 
ef  his  age.  When  the  news  of  his  death  was  received  at  Athens, 
Sophocles,  who  was  about  to  exhibit  one  of  his  tragedies,  not- 
withstanding their  mutual  enmity,  appeared  in  mourning,  and 
made  his  actors  come  on  the  stage  without  crowns.  The  Athe- 
nians requested  his  bones  from  Archelaus,  that  they  might  be- 
stow upon  them  the  rites  of  an  honorable  burial.  Archelaus, 
desirous  of  preserving  in  Macedonia  the  remains  of  so  distin- 
guished a  man,  refused  their  request.  The  Athenians  after- 
wards raised  a  cenotaph  to  his  memory.* 

After  the  time  of  the  three  great  poets,  we  have  thus  briefly 
noticed,  no  other  tragic  poet  of  distinction  rose  in  Greece.  The 
poetic  talents  of  succeeding  writers  appear  to  have  been  exclu- 
sively directed  to  comedy,  and  Thalia  assumed  the  seat  of  Mel- 
pomene. 

*  Potter's  trans,  of  the  works  of  Eschylus  and  Euripides.  Anachar.  Travels,  vol  6. 
Potter's  Grec.  Ant.  Cours  de  Litterature  par  La  Harpe.  Francklin's  Sophocles.  Lem 
preire's  Class.  Pic.  Gillie's  Greece.  Mitford'a  Greece.  Plutarch's  Lives. 


HISTORY  OF  -LITERATURE, 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Literature  of  the  Greeks.  Greek  comedy — the  old,  the  middle  and  the 
new :  Eupolis,  Cratinus,  Aristophanes,  Crates,  Alexis,  Antiphanes, 
Menander,  Philemon.  Pastoral  poetry :  Theocritus,  Appolonius 
Rhodius. 

WHAT  is  properly  called  comedy,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
invented  by  Epicharmus,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher  of  Syracuse, 
Who  flourished  about  four  hundred  and  sixty  years  before  the 
birth  of  Christ.  Although  a  philosopher,  he  cultivated  the  gar- 
den of  polite  literature,  and  was  the  author  of  about  forty  co- 
medies, most  of  which  were  distinguished  for  a  refined  morality, 
and  were  selected  as  models  for  imitation  by  Plautus,  a  celebra- 
ted Roman  comic  writer. 

Greek  comedy  was  divided  into  the  old,  the  middle  and  the  new. 
In  the  first  it  was  common  to  represent  on  the  stage  known  indi- 
viduals by  name,  who  happened  to  be  remarkable  either  for  their 
follies  or  their  vices,  any  peculiarity  of  outward  demeanor,  or  for 
their  moral  doctrines  and  opinions  in  philosophy.  To  repress  this 
license,  thus  freely  indulged,  in  which,  to  gratify  personal  feel- 
ing, the  most  illustrious  and  distinguished  characters  were  intro- 
duced in  ludicrous  situations,  laws  were  enacted,  forbidding  the 
mention  of  the  names  of  living  persons,  which  gave  rise  to  what 
was  called  the  middle  comedy.  The  comic  poets,  being  thus  pro- 
hibited from  introducing  and  holding  up  to  ridicule,  the  names 
and  characters  of  living  individuals,  adopted  a  plan,  that  by 
means  of  masks,  dress  and  imitation  of  gesture  and  manner, 
they  so  plainly  designated  the  persons  intended  to  be  satirized, 
that  they  were  at  once  recognised.  This  was  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  the  middle  comedy.  The  public  rulers  perceiving 
that  the  poets  thus  eluded  the  law  which  forbade  the  mention  of 
names,  and  which  was  designed  to  protect  the  characters  and 
feelings  of  individuals  from  wanton  and  malicious  attacks,  found 
it  necessary  to  enact  another,  banishing  from  the  stage  all  allu- 
sion to  individuals,  and  restricting  the  representation  to  the  deli- 
neation and  exposition  of  general  manners.  This  was  called  the 
new  comedy.  We  now  design  to  notice  the  most  distinguished 


3Q  HfSTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

poets,  in    these   several   departments  01   divisions   01   ancient 
comedy. 

In  the  old  comedy,  Cratinus,  Eupolis,  and  Aristophanes,  were 
contemporaries  and  competitors  for  the  comic  wreath.  They 
each  enjoyed  a  high  reputation,  but  Aristophanes  appears  to  have 
been  the  most  successful  candidate,  having  been  distinguished 
by  the  title  of  "Prince  of  the  old  comedy."  During  the  period 
of  their  rivalship,  the  magistracy  prohibited  the  representation 
of  comedies  at  Athens,  which  was  in  force  two  years.  When 
Enthymenas  was  chosen  archon,  he  revoked  the  edict,  and  Thalia 
was  reinstated  in  her  honors  by  the  abovementioned  comic 
poets,  who  were  in  high  favor  with  the  people,  on  account  of 
the  boldness  with  which  they  attacked,  and  the  severity  with 
which  they  lashed,  the  vices  and  follies  of  the  times,  and  par- 
ticularly of  certain  elevated  individuals. 

Eupolis  atque  Cratinus,  Aristophanesque  poetae, 
Atque  alii,  quorum  comoedia  prisca  virorum  est, 
Si  quis  erat  dignus  describi,  quod  malus,  autfur, 
Quod  moechus  foret,  aut  sicarius,  aut  alioqui 
Famosus;  multa  cum  libertate  notabant. 

Her.  Lib.  I,  Sat.. 4 

The  comic  poets  in  its  earliest  age, 

Who  form'd  the  manners  of  the  Grecian  stage. 

Was  there  a  villain  who  might  justly  claim 

A  better  right  of  being  damn'd  to  fame; 

Rake,  cut-throat,  thief,  whatever  was  his  crime, 

They  freely  stigmatized  the  wretch  in  rhyme.  Francis* 

Cratinus  was  an  Athenian  by  birth;  he  composed  thirty  co- 
medies, which  were  distinguished  for  a  lively  and  highly  orna- 
mented style ;  scarcely  a  single  fragment,  however,  is  now  to  be 
found.  He  lived  to  the  great  age  of  ninety-seven,  notwithstand- 
ing he  led  a  dissipated  life.  He  was  greatly  addicted  to  wine, 
so  much  so,  that  he  asserted  no  author  could  be  good  for  any 
thing,  who  did  not  love  his  bottle,  and  offer  frequent  libations  to 
Bacchus.  It  is  to  him  Horace  alludes  in  his  epistle  to  Maecenas: 

Frisco  si  credis,  Maecenas  docte,  Cratino, 

Nulla  placere  diu  nee  vivere  carmina  possunt, 

Quae  scribuntur  aquas  potoribus.  Hor.  Ej>.  19. 

To  sage  Cratinus  if  you  credit  give, 

No  water-drinker's  verses  long  shall  liver 

Or  long  shall  please. _— -  Francis. 


"! 

'. •',„  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  §1 

r  rile  last  dramatic  production  of  Cratinus  was  a  comedy,  en- 
titled ^The  Flagon,"  which  he  wrote  in  consequence  of  an  at- 
tack made  upon  him  by  Aristophanes,  in  one  of  his  comedies,  in 
which  he  was  held  up  to  ridicule  in  consequence  of  his  excessive 
love  of  wine.  In  this  comedy  Cratinus  contrived  to  turn  the 
laugh  against  Aristophanes,  who  was  himself  a  devotee  of 
the  jolly  god.  In  his  comic  writings  he  is  said  to  have  pos- 
sessed the  severity  of  Archilochus  and  the  energy  of  JEschylus. 
Cratinus  died  in  the  ninety-seventh  year  of  his  age. 

Eupolis  was  also  an  Athenian,  and  exhibited  great  dramatic 
powers  at  a  very  early  age.  He  is  said  to  have  written  seven- 
teen comedies  before  he  attained  the  age  of  seventeen  years — 
an  effort  of  genius  seldom,  if  ever,  equalled.  He  soon  became 
a  popular  writer,  and  the  boldness  of  his  satire,  which  was  level- 
led at  the  vicious  and  profligate  characters  of  Athens,  recom- 
mended him  to  public  esteem.  The  manner  of  his  death  is  un- 
certain; it  is  supposed,  however,  that  some  of  those  persons, 
whose  vices  he  had  exposed  in  his  comedies,  suborned  assassins 
to  throw  him  into  the  Hellespont,  and  even  Alcibiades,  whom  he 
had  satirized,  is  suspected  for  having  been  concerned  in  the 
plot.  He  was  the  author  of  about  twenty  comedies,  of  the 
greater  part  of  which  little  more  than  the  titles  have  been  pre- 
served. 

Aristophanes  was  born  in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  but  went  early 
to  Athens,  where  he  subsequently  distinguished  himself  as  a 
comic  poet  and  received  the  olive  crown  in  a  public  assembly. 
In  private  life  he  is  represented  to  have  been  free  and  open  in 
his  temper,  of  a  social  disposition,  and  intemperate  in  the  use  of 
wine — a  vice  from  which,  however,  very  few  in  his  time,  could 
claim  exemption.  He  was  one  of  the  most  popular  men  in 
Athens,  and  his  fame  soon  spread  abroad.  "The  comedies  of 
Aristophanes,"  says  a  competent  judge, "are  of  a  mixed  species; 
sometimes  personal,  at  other  times  inclining  to  parody ;  he  varies 
and  accommodates  his  style  to  his  subject  and  the  speakers;  on 
some  occasions  it  is  elevated,  grave,  sublime  and  polished;  on 
others  it  sinks  and  descends  into  humble  dialogue,  provincial 
rusticity  and  coarse  obscenity.  In  some  passages  he  starts  out 
of  the  ordinary  province  of  comedy,  into  the  loftiest  flights  of 
poetry,  in  which  he  is  scarcely  surpassed  by  ^Eschylus  or  Pin- 
dar." Aristophanes  was  the  author  of  above  fifty  comedies,  of 

11 


gc;  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

which  only  eleven  have  come  down  to  us.  In  one  of  them,  "The 
Clouds,"  he  attacked  Socrates,  the  celebrated  philosopher,  bj 
bringing  him  upon  the  stage,  and  exposing  his  person  and  char- 
acter to  ridicule.  Socrates  was  present  at  the  representation  of 
this  play,  at  the  time  when  the  theatre  was  crowded  with  stran- 
gers, and  in  a  great  degree  destroyed  the  intended  effect  of  the 
piece  by  his  magnanimity.  When  the  person  representing  So- 
crates came  forward,  observing  the  anxiety  of  the  strangers  to 
know  the  person  the  poet  meant  to  satirize,  the  philosopher,  with 
great  coolness,  rose  up  and  continued  standing  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  performance.  It  was  in  consequence  of  this  at- 
tack upon  Socrates,  that  the  law  prohibiting  the  representation 
of  living  characters  upon  the  stage  was  enacted. 

The  principal  object  of  Aristophanes  in"The  Clouds,"  appear? 
to  have  been,  to  expose  the  doctrines  taught  by  Socrates,  al- 
though he  sometimes  hints  at  his  personal  infirmities.  He  IF 
introduced  upon  the  stage,  suspended  in  a  basket,  and  is  accost- 
ed by  Strepsiades,  a  wild  fellow,  who  has  been  in  conversation 
with  some  of  the  disciples  of  the  philosopher: 

Strep.     Hoa!  Socrates — what  hoa,  my  little  Socrates! 

Soc.    Mortal,  how  now !  thou  insect  of  a  day, 
What  would'st  thou? 

Strep.     I  would  know  what  thou  art  doing. 

Soc.     I  tread  in  air,  contemplating  the  sun. 

Strep.     Oh!  then  I  see  you're  baskettd  so  high 
That  you  look  down  upon  the  gods — good  hopr 
You  '11  lower  a  peg  on  earth. 

Soc.     Sublime  in  air, 

Sublime  in  thought,  I  carry  my  mind  with  me, 
Its  cogitations  all  assimilated 
To  the  pure  atmosphere,  in  which  I  float; 
Lower  me  to  earth,  and  my  mind's  subtle  power?. 
Seized  by  contagious  dulness,  lose  their  spirit; 
For  the  dry  earth  drinks  up  the  generous  sap. 
The  vegetating  vigor  of  philosophy, 
And  leaves  it  a  mere  husk. 

Strep.    What  do  you  say  1 
Philosophy  has  sapt  your  vigor?    Fie  upon  it. 
But  come,  my  precious  fellow,  come  down  quickly 
And  teach  me  those  fine  things  I  'm  here  in  quest  01 

Soc.     And  what  fine  things  are  they? 

Step.    A  new  receipt 

For  sending  off  my  creditors,  and  foiling  them 
By  the  art  logical ;  for  you  shall  know 
By  debts,  pawns,  pledges,  usuries,  execution?, 
I  am  racked  and  rent  in  tatter?. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  g£ 

Socrates  inquires  of  Strepsiades,  if  he  is  desirous  of  being  in* 
atructed  in  "celestial  matters,"  and  being  answered  in  the  affir- 
mative, he  commences  the  ceremony  of  initiation: 

Keep  silence  then,  and  listen  to  a  prayer, 

Which  fits  the  gravity  of  age  to  hear — 

Oh  air,  all  powerful  air,  which  dost  enfold 

This  pendant  globe,  thou  vault  of  flaming  gold, 

Ye  sacred  clouds,  who  bid  the  thunder  roll, 

Shine  forth,  approach,  and  cheer  your  suppliant's  soul! 

Strep.    Hold!  keep  'em  off  a  while,  till  I  am  ready. 
Ah  luckless  me,  would  I  had  bro't  my  bonnet 
And  so  escaped  a  soaking. 

Soc.     Fly  swift  ye  clouds,  and  give  yourselves  to  view ! 
Whether  on  high  Olympus'  sacred  top 
Snow  crown'd  ye  sit,  or  in  the  azure  vales 
Of  your  own  father  Ocean  sporting  weave 
Your  misty  dance,  or  dip  your  golden  urns 
In  the  seven  mouths  of  Nile ;  whether  ye  dwell 
On  Thracian  Mimas,  or  Maeotis'  lake 
Hear  me,  yet  hear,  and  thus  invok'd  approach! 

A  large  cloud  is  seen  floating  in  the  air,  from  which  a  song  is 
heard,  at  the  conclusion  of  which,  Socrates  says, 

Yes,  ye  divinities,  whom  I  adore, 

I  hail  you  now  propitious  to  my  prayer, 

Did'st  thou  not  hear,  then  speak  in  thunder  to  me — 

Strep.     And  I  too  am  your  cloudship's  most  obedient 
And  under  sufferance  trump  against  your  thunder.  - 
Nay,  take  it  how  you  may,  my  frights  and  fears 
Have  pinch'd  and  cholick'd  my  poor  bowels  so, 
That  I  can't  choose  but  treat  their  holy  nostrils 
With  an  unsavoury  sacrifice. 

Soc.     Forbear 

These  gross  scurrilities,  for  low  buffoons 
And  mountebanks  more  fitting.     Hush!  be  still, 
List  to  the  chorus  of  their  heavenly  voices, 
For  music  is  the  language  they  delight  in. 

Much  in  the  same  strain,  the  author  continues  his  satire  upon 
Socrates,  to  the  conclusion  of  the  piece.  Aristophanes  possess- 
ed such  boldness  and  independence  of  character,  that  he  never 
swerved  from  his  purpose  from  fear  of  consequences.  He  as- 
sailed the  powerful  as  well  as  the  weak,  whenever  he  believed 
their  conduct  merited  censure.  He  attacked  Cleon  in  a  piece 
abounding  with  the  bitterest  satire,  but  as  he  could  find  no  work- 
man who  would  make  a  mask  to  represent  him,  or  performer 
who  would  undertake  the  part,  he  appeared  upon  the  stage 


34  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

himself,  with  his  face  smeared  with  wine  lees,  and  the  multitude 
applauded,  although  Cleon  was  then  at  the  height  of  his  power, 
and  even  adored  by  the  populace.* 

Besides  the  writers  of  the  old  comedy  we  have  mentioned, 
there  were  others  of  inferior  note.  Jlmipsias  was  contemporary 
with  Aristophanes ;  of  his  comedies  we  have  the  titles  of  ten, 
and  judging  therefrom,  they  appear  to  have  been  directed  against 
the  prevailing  follies  and  vices  of  the  age — at  all  times  fit  subjects 
for  the  pen  of  the  satirist. 

Crates  was  also  contemporary  with  Cratinus  and  Aristophanes. 
He  was  at  first  a  principal  actor  in  the  plays  of  Cratinus,  but 
afterwards  turned  his  attention  to  comedy,  and  produced  more 
than  twenty  plays,  distinguished  for  their  lively  sallies  of  wit, 
and  their  exemption  from  offensive  personalities.  Of  his  works 
a  few  fragments  only  remain ;  the  following  translation  of  one  of 
them  "On  old  age,"  is  from  the  pen  of  Cumberland. 

These  shrivell'd  sinews  and  this  bending  frame, 

The  workmanship  of  time's  strong  hand  proclaim; 

Skill'd  to  reverse  whate'er  the  gods  create, 

And  make  that  crooked  which  they  fashion  straight. 

Hard  choice  for  man  to  die — or  else  to  be 

That  tottering,  wretched,  wrinkled  thing  you  see: 

Age  then  we  all  prefer;  for  age  we  pray, 

And  travel  on  to  life's  last  lingering  day ; 

Then  sinking  slowly  down  from  worse  to  worse, 

Find  Heaven's  extorted  boon,  our  greatest  curse. 

About  this  period  also  flourished  Phcrecrates,  who  is  said  to 
have  written  twenty-one  comedies,  in  a  style  of  the  purest  Attic. 
He  invented  a  kind  of  verse  which  was  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  Phcrecratian.  This  poet  was  the  personal  friend  of  Plato,  the 
philosopher. 

The  writers  of  the  middle  comedy  were  numerous,  not  less  than 
thirty  were  celebrated;  of  their  respective  merits, however,  we 
have  but  little  opportunity  of  forming  any  judgment,  as  all  their 
productions  have  perished,  except  a  few  fragments.  Cumber- 
land has  collected  many  of  these  fragments  in  his  "Observer," 
and  has  translated  them  with  taste,  spirit  and  elegance.  Among 
the  most  distinguished  comic  poets  of  the  middle  comedy,  was 
Alexis,  a  native  of  Thurium,  in  Magna  Graecia,  which  compre- 
hended the  southern  parts  of  Italy.  He  is  said  to  have  written 

*  Mitchel's  Aristophanes.     EdinEncy.    Anaehav,  Travels,  vol.  VI.  25 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^  ±,  ^ 

no  less  than  two  hundred  and  forty-five  comedies,  which  Plu- 
tarch says  were  "crowned  with  the  trophies  of  success,  and  tri- 
umphed in  the  plaudits  of  the  theatre." 

Prolific  as  the  muse  of  Alexis  appears  to  have  been,  that  of 
Antiphanes  of  Smyrna,  was  more  so,  having  produced,  according 
to  some  writers,  two  hundred  and  ninety  comedies,  according  to 
others  three  hundred  and  sixty-five,  a  number  equalled  among 
modern  dramatists  only,  by  Lope  de  Vega,  a  Spanish  writer  of  the 
16th  century,  who  is  said  to  have  written  eighteen  hundred 
dramatic  pieces.  Antiphanes  gained  the  prize  with  thirty 
comedies.  Of  the  works  of  this  author,  nothing  but  a  few 
fragments  remain,  which  were  scattered  through  the  works 
of  others,  but  have  been  collected  in  a  work  entitled  "Po- 
etae  Minores  Graeci."  From  these  few  fragments  it  is  im- 
possible to  form  a  correct  judgment  of  his  peculiar  merits 
as  a  comic  writer.  In  one  of  his  comedies,  a  part  of  which  is 
preserved  by  Athenaeus,  (who  composed  a  miscellaneous  work, 
in  which  were  collected  many  anecdotes  of  ancient  authors,  and 
many  scattered  pieces  of  poetry,)  is  described  a  singular  contri- 
vance of  the  king  of  Cyprus  to  cool  his  chamber. 

This  monarch  when  he  sups 


Is  fann'd  by  living  doves. 

There  is  a  juice  drawn  from  the  Carpen  tree, 

To  which  your  dove  is  instantly  wedded 

With  a  most  loving  appetite;  with  this 

The  king  anoints  his  temples,  and  the  odour 

No  sooner  captivates  the  silly  birds, 

Than  straight  they  flutter  round  him,  nay,  would  fly 

A  bolder  pitch,  so  strong  a  love-charm  draws  them. 

And  perch,  O  horror !  on  his  sacred  crown ; 

If  that  such  profanation  were  permitted 

Of  the  bystanders,  who,  with  reverend  care 

Fright  them  away,  till  thus  retreating  now 

And  now  advancing,  they  keep  such  a  coil 

With  their  broad  vans,  and  beat  the  lazy  air 

Into  so  quick  a  stir,  that  in  the  conflict 

His  royal  lungs  are  comfortably  cool'd, 

And  thus  he  sups  as  Pathian  monarchs  should. 

This  extract,  we  think,  affords  a  favorable  specimen  of  the 
style  of  composition  and  train  of  thought,  which  distinguish  his 
comic  writings,  and  judging  from  it,  we  may  fairly  infer,  that 
his  powers  were  of  no  common  order. 

Anaxandrides  of  Rhodes,  was  the  author  of  sixty-five  come- 
dies, with  ten  of  which  he  gained  prizes  in  public  contests.  A 


#fc  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

few  fragments  only  of  his  numerous  productions,  have  been 
preserved,  and  from  them  no  certain  opinion  can  be  formed  of 
his  claims  to  eminence.  He  appears  to  have  destroyed  in  his 
fits  of  passion,  to  which  he  was  greatly  addicted,  some  of  his 
best  comedies.  To  the  middle  comedy  also  belong  Epicrates  of 
Ambrasia,  and  Eubulus  of  Atama  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  who  is 
said  to  have  written  fifty  comedies,  and  to  have  been  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  poets  of  his  age.  In  his  comedy  of  the  "Cup 
Bearers,"  he  puts  the  following  language  in  the  mouth  of  Bac- 
rhus: 

.  .        ! 

Three  cups  of  wine  a  prudent  man  may  take ; 

The  first  of  these  for  constitution's  sake; 

The  second  to  the  girl  he  loves  the  best; 

The  third  and  last  to  lull  him  to  his  rest, 

Then  home  to  bed!  but  if  a  fourth  he  pours, 

That  is  the  cup  of  folly,  and  not  ours; 

Loud  noisy  talking-  on  the  fifth  attends; 

The  sixth  breeds  feuds  and  falling  out  of  friends; 

Seven  begets  blows  and  faces stain'd  with  gore; 

Eight,  and  the  watch-patrol  breaks  ope  the  door; 

Mad  with  the  ninth,  another  cup  goes  round 

And  the  swilPd  sot  drops  senseless  to  the  ground. 

The  above  lines  contain  maxims  well  worth  attention  at  the 
present  day,  and  were  they  observed,  society  would  have  to  de- 
plore fewer  wrecks  of  genius. 

With  Menander  commences  the  new  comedy,  distinguished  from 
the  old  by  being  superior  to  it  in  delicacy,  regularity  and  deco- 
rum, and  avoiding  or  refraining  from  all  attacks  upon  living  cha- 
racters. The  writers  of  the  new  comedy  attacked  the  vices  and 
follies  of  the  age,  regardless  of  the  garb  which  covered  them,  in 
the  fearless  spirit  of  bold  invective.  Menander  was  born  and 
flourished  two  hundred  and  eighty  years  before  Christ.  He  was 
educated  by  Thcophrastus,  a  philosopher  of  the  school  of  Aristo- 
tle. At  an  early  age  he  began  to  write  for  the  stage,  and  his 
comedies  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  their  elegant  lan- 
guage, refined  wit  and  judicious  observations,  so  different  from 
his  predecessors  in  the  old  and  middle  comedy. 

The  very  bees,  oh  sweet  Menander,  hung 
To  hear  the  muses  lisp  upon  thy  tongue ; 
The  very  graces  made  the  scenes  you  writ 
Their  happy  point  of  pure  expression  hit, 
Thus  still  you  live ;  you  make  your  Athens  shine 
And  raise  its  glory  to  the  skies  in  thine," 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  37 

The  united  voice  of  Greece  conferred  upon  Menander  the 
proud  title  of  "Prince  of  the  New  Comedy,"  as  upon  Aristopha- 
nes it  had  before  conferred  that  of  "Prince  of  the  Old  Comedy." 
Of  one  hundred  comedies  written  by  him,  only  a  few  fragments 
have  survived  the  ravages  of  time,  which  exhibit  him  rather 
as  a  gloomy  and  morose  misanthrope,  than  possessing  any  amia- 
ble and  social  qualities,  or  as  the 

"Gay  Menander  charming  each  youthful  heart." 

His  discontented  and  misanthropic  disposition  may  be  fairl) 
inferred  from  the  following  fragment,  translated  by  Cumberland: 

Suppose  somegocl  should  say:  Die  when  thou  wilt. 

Mortal,  expect  another  life  on  earth; 

And  for  that  life  make  choice  of  all  creation, 

What  wilt  thou  be ;  dog,  sheep,  goat,  man  or  horse : 

For  live  again  thou  must ;  it  is  thy  fate ; 

Choose  only  what  form ;  then  thou  art  free — 

So  help  me  Cato,  I  would  fairly  answer — 

Let  me  be  all  things,  any  thing  but  man ! 

He  only  of  all  creatures  feels  affliction. 

But  what  is  man? 

Truth,  virtue,  valor,  how  do  they  avail  him? 
Of  this  world's  good,  the  first  and  greatest  share 
Ts  flattery's  prize ;  the  informer  takes  the  next, 
And  barefaced  knavery  garbles  what  is  left. 
I  'd  rather  be  an  ass  than  what  I  am, 
And  see  these  villains  lord  it  o'er  their  betters." 

Aristophanes  was  the  head  of  the  old,  and  Menander  of  the 
new  comedy,  and  being  thus  distinguished,  they  have  had  their 
respective  advocates  and  admirers.  Plutarch  has  drawn  a  pa- 
rallel between  these  two  great  comic  poets,  in  which  he  gives 
his  judgment  in  favor  of  Menander.  Of  the  justice  of  his  deci- 
sion we  have  no  sufficient  means  of  judging  at  the  present  day, 
so  small  a  portion  of  the  writings,  at  least  of  one  of  them,  having 
reached  us.  Of  Menander,  he  says,  that  he  knew  how  to  adapt 
his  style  and  language  to  the  character  represented,  and  at  the 
same  time  preserving  the  truly  comic — that  he  never  lost  sight 
of  nature,  and  that  his  comedies  may  be  read  and  may  be  seen 
represented  with  equal  satisfaction,  affording  pleasure  in  all 
places  and  under  all  circumstances.  On  the  other  hand,  he  re- 
presents Aristophanes,  as  going  beyond  nature,  and  adopting 
language  calculated  rather  to  please  the  populace,  than  correct 


38  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

the  manners,  and  gratify  men  of  taste  and  refinement — that  his 
style  is  very  unequal,  sometimes  elevated  even  to  bombast,  and 
immediately  descending  to  low  buffoonery,  and  disgusting  pue- 
rilities. 

A  victim  of  discontent,  Menander  drowned  himself  in  the  Pe- 
raean  sea,  in  the  52d  year  of  his  age. 

Philemon  was  contemporary  with  Menander,  and  is  said  to 
have  triumphed  over  him  several  times  in  trials  of  poetic  skill. 
The  vanity  of  Menander  would  not  permit  him  to  believe  that 
the  victory  was  obtained  by  fair  means,  and  he  is  said  to  have 
accosted  him  thus — "Do  you  not  blush,  Philemon,  when  you 
prevail  over  me?"  Philemon  was  born  at  Syracuse,  and  lived 
to  the  great  age  of  one  hundred  and  one  years,  and  composed 
ninety  comedies.  The  fragments  of  his  writings  which  have 
reached  us,  are,  in  general,  of  a  tender  and  sentimental  cast, 
breathing  a  soft  and  placid  spirit,  and  in  no  instance  exhibiting 
the  gloomy  misanthropy  of  Menander.  The  following  fragment 
of  Philemon,  is  of  an  opposite  character  from  that  of  his  rival, 
quoted  above: 

Philosophers  consume  much  time  and  pains 
To  seek  the  sovereign  good,  nor  is  there  one 
Who  yet  hath  struck  upon  it;  virtue  some 
And  prudence  some  contend  for,  whilst  the  knot 
Grows  harder  by  their  struggle  to  untie  it. 
I,  a  mere  clown,  in  turning  up  the  soil 
Have  dug  the  secret  forth — all  gracious  Jove! 
1T  is  peace,  most  lovely  and  all  beloved ; 
Peace  is>  the  bounteous  goddess,  who  bestows 
Weddings  and  holidays,  and  joyous  feasts. 
Relations,  friends,  health,  plenty,  social  comforts, 
And  pleasures  which  alone  make  life  a  blessing. 

Besides  the  writers  above  named,  were  Diphilus,  a  native  of 
Sinope,  a  city  of  Pontus;  Apollodorus,  a  native  of  Gela  in  Sicily; 
Philipidas,  whose  death  was  occasioned  by  the  unexpected  suc- 
cess of  one  of  his  comedies ;  and  lastly,  Posidippus,  a  Macedo- 
nian, horn  at  Cassandra,  and  who  may  be  reckoned  the  last  of 
the  comic  poets.* 

From  what  has  already  been  said,  it  will  be  seen,  that  poetry 
in  Greece,  from  the  time  of  Pindar  to  that  of  Theocritus,  was 
almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  drama.  fto  great  poet  in  any 

*  Anach.  Travels.    Cumberland's  Observer.    Quint.  Ins.    Potter's  Ant.  of  Greece 
Cours  deLitterature,  tome  II. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


other  walk  appeared.  This  encouragement  of  dramatic  poetry, 
.shows  the  strong  attachment  of  the  people  to  an  art,  which 
deeply  interested  their  feelings,  and  which  they  used  great  ex- 
ertions to  keep  alive.  If  it  were  not  for  this  almost  exclusive 
attachment  to  dramatic  poetry,  in  that  fertile  field  of  genius 
and  talent,  other  poets  of  a  different  class  would  have  arisen. 
It  is  not  to  be  inferred,  however,  that  dramatic  literature  was 
the  only  species  cultivated  —  far  from  it.  During  the  above- 
mentioned  period  flourished  her  greatest  historians,  philosophers 
and  orators,  of  whom  we  shall  hereafter  speak  —  men  who  have 
conferred  immortality  on  the  land  which  gave  them  birth. 

Pastoral  poetry,  although  of  early  origin,  was  not  much  cul- 
tivated, as  a  distinct  species,  until  the  time  of  Theocritus,  to 
whom  it  is  indebted  for  the  interesting  form  in  which  it  is  at 
present  exhibited,  not  only  in  his  own  pastorals,  but  in  those  of 
Virgil,  Gesner,  Shenstone,  Pope  and  Allan  Ramsay.  The  scene 
is  universally  laid  in  the  country  amidst  shady  groves,  de- 
lightful meadows  and  purling  streams;  and  to  render  it  interest- 
ing, the  poet  ought  to  possess  a  talent  for  describing  the  magni- 
ficent scenes  of  nature,  which  are  constantly  presented  before 
him,  when  beyond  the  smoke  of  a  crowded  city,  or  populous 
town  ;  and  he  ought,  moreover,  to  be  perfectly  familiar  with 
the  kind  of  life  pastoral  poetry  is  intended  to  describe  and  illus- 
trate. His  language  should  be  simple  but  refined,  plain  but  not 
It  is  thus  a  most  interesting  and  agreeable  form  of  com- 
position, with  which  the  best  feelings  of  our  nature  mingle  and 
harmonise;  "It  recals  to  our  imagination  those  gay  scenes  and 
pleasing  views  of  nature,  which,  commonly,  are  the  delight  of 
our  childhood  and  youth  ;  and  to  which,  in  more  advanced  years, 
the  greatest  part  of  men  recur  with  pleasure.  It  exhibits  to  us 
ii  life,  with  which  we  are  accustomed  to  associate  ideas  of 
peace,  of  leisure  and  of  innocence;  and,  therefore,  we  readily 
set  open  our  hearts  to  such  representations  as  promise  to  banish 
from  our  thoughts  the  cares  of  the  world,  and  to  transport  us 
into  "calm  elysian  regions.*'* 

Theocritus,  who  may  be  called  the  father  of  pastoral  poetry, 
flourished  about  two  hundred  and  eighty  years  before  Christ. 
He  was  born  at  Syracuse  in  Sicily.  He  received  all  the  advan- 

'•*  Blair's  Ler.p.388. 


tlcll<J. 

v      rude. 


90  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

tages  of  education  the  country  afforded,  and  soon  gave  indica- 
tions of  that  poetic  genius,  for  which  he  was  afterwards  distin- 
guished. He  early  turned  his  attention  to  that  description  oi 
poetry  which  he  cultivated  with  so  much  success,  and  which  ha^ 
given  celebrity  to  his  name,  namely,  pastoral  poetry.  He  se- 
lected as  the  scene  of  his  pastorals,  the  woods  and  plains  of  his 
native  Sicily,  and  for  his  subjects,  Sicilian  shepherds,  of  whose 
manners  and  customs  he  gives  a  faithful  description,  exhibit- 
ing that  warmth  of  feeling  and  appropriate  character,  which  be- 
long to  the  shepherd  class.  The  pastorals  of  Theocritus  are  of 
three  kinds;  such  as  are  strictly  pastoral,  descriptive  of  the  shep- 
herd life;  those  termed  bucolics,  in  which  the  characters  are 
herdsmen,  and  those  in  which  fishermen  are  introduced.  As 
the  Sicilians  were  a  Doric  colony,  the  dialect  he  uses  is  the  Do- 
ric, the  best  adapted  for  the  description  of  rural  scenes  and  rural 
manners.  The  style  of  Theocritus  is  distinguished  for  its  na- 
tural and  graceful  manner  and  its  simplicity — a  simplicity,  how- 
ever, which  sometimes  degenerates  into  grossness  and  indelicacy: 
but,  notwithstanding  this  defect,  there  is  a  general  sweetness 
and  harmony  of  numbers,  and  a  richness  of  description  that  can- 
not fail  to  captivate.  Theocritus  wrote  thirty  idyls  or  pasto- 
rals, which  are  still  extant.* 

Contemporary  with  Theocritus,  were  Bion  and  Moschus,  both 
pastoral  poets.  Bion  was  born  at  Smyrna,  and  Moschus  at  Sy- 
racuse. They  both  acquired  much  distinction,  as  pastoral  and 
elegiac  poets,  and,  as  regards  talents,  they  appear  to  have  been 
considered  equal.  Their  idyls  are  written  in  a  «tyle  inferior  to 
Theocritus  for  simplicity  and  natural  description,  but  more  de- 
licate and  refined  in  their  language  and  sentiments.  As  elegiac 
poets,  they  do  not  hold  as  high  a  rank,  being  considered  rather 
dull  and  monotonous.  But  few  of  their  works  remain. 

Appolonius  RhodiitS)  was  a  native  of  Naucrates  in  Egypt,  he 
obtained  the  surname  of  Rhodius,  because  he  lived  some  time  at 
Rhodes.  He  was  the  pupil  of  Callimachus,  who  kept  a  school  at 
Alexandria,  during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  a  great 
patron  of  learning.  Appolonius  is  said  to  have  treated  his  mas- 
ter with  ingratitude,  who  lashed  him  severely  in  a  satirical 
poem  under  the  name  of  Ibis.  He  was  at  one  time  in  the  situa- 

;   Potter's Grec.  Ant.   CoursdeLitterature.p.  91.  Blair's  Lee.  393,  Lera,  Ha??.  Bir 
Poetae  Min.Groeci 


t  r  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  -tf*'  • 

lion  of  one  of  the  librarians  of  the  celebrated  Alexandria  libra- 
ry. Appolonius  wrote  several  works,  none  of  which  remain  but 
the  Argonauts,  a  poem  in  four  books,  founded  upon  the  celebra- 
ted expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  for  the  recovery  of  the  golden 
lleece. 

We  here  close  our  sketch  of  the  poets  of  Greece.  We  are 
well  aware  that  many  have  been  omitted,  but  it  did  not  come 
within  our  plan  to  notice  all;  our  attention  has  been  directed  to 
such  only  as  we  considered  most  distinguished  in  the  several  de- 
partments of  Grecian  poetry. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Literature  of  the  Greeks.  Of  the  different  sects  of  Greek  philosopher!* 
The  Ionic  School;  Socratic;  Cyrenaic;  Megaric;  Eliac;  Aca- 
demic; Peripatetic;  'Cynic,  and  Stoic. 

What  is  now  called  philosophy,  was  originally  denominated 
wisdom ;  its  possessors  were  first  called  wise  men,  and  at  a  subse- 
quent period  philosophers;  an  appellation,  at  that  time,  rather 
indicative  of  the  pursuit,  than  the  possession  of  wisdom,  and  said 
to  have  been  first  adopted  by  Pythagoras,  the  sage  of  Samos,  in 
contradistiction  to  that  of  sophists,  or  wise  men,  assumed  by  a 
certain  sect,  at  that  time  somewhat  conspicuous,  and  who  were 
arrogant  and  presumptuous,  on  account  of  what  they  conceived 
to  be,  their  superior  wisdom.  In  the  early  ages  of  the  world, 
the  discovery  of  any  useful  art,  or  the  possession  of  knowledge 
beyond  the  mass  of  mankind,  was  sufficient  to  confer  this  dis- 
tinctive appellation,  and  it  was  considered  as  particularly  be- 
longing to  those  who  presided  over,  and  directed  the  ceremonies 
of  religion.  The  title  was  conferred,  no  doubt,  on  many  who 
had  no  just  claim  to  such  preeminence. 

The  philosophy  of  the  early  Greeks  is  so  involved  in  fable, 
and  so  mingled  with  the  systems  of  other  nations,  that  it  is  im- 
possible, with  any  kind  of  precision,  to  ascertain  in  what  it  really 
consisted,  or  trace  its  progressive  advances.  Among  those  whom 
fabulous  history  has  dignified  with  the  title  of  philosopher,  wf 


92  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

find  the  name  of  Prometheus,  who  is  known  in  fable  as  having 
stolen  fire  from  heaven ;  he  appears,  however,  to  have  been  more 
remarkable  for  fraud  and  cunning,  than  any  other  quality. 
Succeeding  him  we  find  the  names  of  Linus,  Orpheus  and  Ma- 
s&us,  of  whom  we  have  already  spoken,  and  who  are  better  and 
more  deservedly  known  as  poets  than  philosophers.  From  all 
we  are  able  to  gather,  after  an  examination  of  various  works, 
we  find  that  philosophy  did  not  acquire  a  rank  worthy  of  the 
name,  until  about  580  years  before  Christ,  when  Thales  and 
Pythagoras  flourished,  the  first  the  founder  of  the  Ionic,  the  second 
of  the  Italic  school. 

Thales,  who  founded  the  Ionic  school,  and  who  first  taught  a 
scientific  method  of  philosophy,  was  born  at  Miletus,  a  town  of 
Ionia,  and  is  said  to  have  been  descended  from  Cadmus,  the 
celebrated  founder  of  Thebes.  Having  early  imbibed  a  love  of 
science,  he  abandoned  every  other  occupation,  that  he  might  be 
at  liberty  to  pursue  his  favorite  studies.  In  search  of  knowledge 
he  visited  the  island  of  Crete,  and  afterwards  travelled  into 
Egypt,  where  he  was  initiated  into  all  the  learning  of  the  priest- 
hood. On  his  return,  he  established  a  school  for  the  purpose  of 
teaching  his  favorite  doctrines  in  philosophy.  He  taught  that 
water  is  the  first  principle  of  all  things,  by  which  it  is  supposed 
he  meant  a  turbid  muddy  mass,  from  which  all  things  are  pro- 
duced. The  reasons  for  this  opinion  have  not  been  satisfacto- 
rily ascertained.  He  taught,  also,  that  God  is  the  most  ancient 
being,  who  has  neither  beginning  nor  end,  and  that  all  things 
are  full  of  him — that  the  deity  is  the  soul  of  the  world,  the  source 
of  all  motion  and  intelligence,  and  that  all  nature  is  full  of  de- 
mons, or  intelligences  proceeding  from  God.  In  astronomy  he 
taught  that  the  stars  are  fiery  bodies — that  the  moon  is  an  opaque 
body,  illuminated  by  the  sun,  and  that  the  earth  is  a  spherical 
body,  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  universe.  He  was  the  first 
who  taught  in  Europe  the  globular  figure  of  the  earth,  and  the 
nature  of  solar  and  lunar  eclipses,  the  times  of  which  he  is  even 
said  to  have  been  able  to  calculate;  of  his  ability  to  do  so,  we 
much  doubt,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  system  of  astronomy 
he  taught.  In  geometry,  which  he  learned  in  Egypt,  he  is 
said  to  have  invented  several  fundamental  propositions,  which 
were  afterwards  incorporated  into  the  elements  of  Euclid.  The 
school  of  Thales  soon  became  celebrated  and  attracted  many 


,  *  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  r>3 

disciples.  The  novel  doctrines  he  taught  made  such  an  impres- 
sion, and  instituted  such  an  inquiry  into  the  nature  and  causes, 
not  only  of  material  but  immaterial  things,  that  it  was  subse- 
quently divided  into  nine  different  sects,  viz:  the  Ionic,  (proper,) 
the  Somatic,  the  Cyrcnaic,  the  Megaric,  the  Eliac,  the  Academic, 
the  Peripatetic*  the  Cynic  and  the  Stoic. 

The  immediate  successor  of  Thales  in  the  Ionic  school,  was 
Aridximander,  his  friend  and  companion.  His  general  doctrine 
differed  but  little  from  that  of  his  master,  although  in  some  par- 
ticular subjects  he  may  have  deviated.  He  was  the  first  who 
delineated  on  a  globe  or  map,  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
marked  the  divisions  of  land  and  water.  Like  his  master  he 
taught,  that  the  stars  are  fiery  bodies,  but  that  they  are  inhabited 
and  animated  by  portions  of  the  divinity;  and  that  the  sun  oc- 
cupies the  highest  place  in  the  heavens,  the  moon  the  next,  and 
the  planets  and  fixed  stars  the  lowest. 

To  him  succeeded  Anaximenes,  a  Milesian,  who  was  born  about 
556  years  before  Christ.  He  taught  that  the  first  principle  of 
all  things  is  air,  which,  animated  with  a  divine  principle,  is  the 
origin  of  all  beings;  that  the  sun  and  moon  are  fiery  bodies, 
whose  form  is  that  of  a  circular  plate ;  that  the  stars  are  fiery 
substances  fixed  in  the  heavens,  and  that  the  earth  is  a  plane 
table  resting  upon  air.  The  successor  of  Anaximenes  was 
Anaxagoras,  who  was  born  about  500  years  before  Christ,  at 
Clazomene,  a  city  of  Ionia,  In  the  twentieth  year  of  his  age  he 
went  to  reside  at  Athens,  but  attracted  by  the  fame  of  Anaxi- 
menes, he  left  Athens  to  attend  his  school.  After  making  him- 
self acquainted  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Ionic  school,  as  taught 
by  Anaximenes,  he  returned  to  Athens,  and  taught  philosophy 
in  private.  Among  his  pupils  were  some  of  the  most  celebrated 
men  of  his  time;  Pericles,  Euripides  and  Socrates,  were  by  him 
instructed  in  the  philosophy  of  the  Ionic  school.  He  supposed 
the  sun  was  inflammable  matter,  and  that  the  moon  was  inhabited. 
He  believed  the  material  world  to  have  originated  from  a  con- 
fused mass,  consisting  of  different  kinds  of  particles,  and  that 
the  peculiar  form  and  properties  of  each  body,  depend  upon  the 
nature  of  that  class  of  particles,  of  which  it  is  chiefly  composed. 

With  Anaxagoras,  great  nature's  law 
fo  'imilarity ;  and  every  compound  form 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Consists  of  parts  minute,  each  like  the  whole; 
And  bone  is  made  of  bone,  and  flesh  of  flesh ; 
And  blood,  and  fire  and  earth,  and  massy  gold, 
Are,  in  their  smallest  portions,  still  the  same. 

The  similar  particles  of  matter,  which  he  supposed  to  be  the 
hasis  of  nature,  being  without  life  or  motion,  induced  the  con- 
clusion, that  there  must  have  been  from  all  eternity,  a  supreme 
and  intelligent  mind,  which  gave  motion,  life  and  being  to  the 
whole.  He,  therefore,  maintained,  according  to  Plato  and 
others,  that  there  was  an  infinite  and  disposing  mind,  the  cause 
of  all  things.  Because  he  taught,  that  the  sun  was  an  inanimate 
fiery  substance,  and,  therefore,  not  a  proper  object  of  worship, 
Anaxagoras  was  charged  with  impiety  and  sentenced  to  death, 
which  sentence,  Pericles  with  much  difficulty  got  changed  to 
fine  and  banishment. 

The  successors  of  Anaxagoras  were  Diogenes  Apollionates,  a 
disciple  of  Anaximenes,  and  Archdaus  of  Miletus.  The  former 
taught  that  air  is  the  first  principle  in  nature,  but  that  it  par- 
takes of  a  divine  intelligence,  a  doctrine  similar  to  that  of  Anax- 
imenes. The  latter  taught,  that  heat  is  the  cause  of  motion  and 
cold  of  rest;  that  the  earth,  at  the  beginning,  was  a  muddy  mass, 
whence  living  animals  were  produced  and  nourished,  and  that 
animals  have  souls  which  differ  in  their  powers,  according  to 
the  structure  of  the  bodies  in  which  they  reside.  Archelaus  is 
considered  the  last  preceptor  of  the  Ionic  school. 

The  Socratic  sect  was  founded  by  Socrates,  to  whom  has  been 
assigned,  if  not  the  first,  at  least  a  very  distinguished  place 
among  ancient  philosophers.  His  father,  Sophroniscus,  was  a 
statuary;  for  some  time  Socrates  followed  the  occupation  of  his 
father,  but  was  at  length  seduced  from  the  workshop  to  the 
school  of  philosophy,  and  under  the  instructions  of  Anaxagoras 
and  Archelaus,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  his  fame.  Whilst  other 
philosophers  of  his  time  were  occupied  in  refined  speculations 
on  the  nature  and  origin  of  things,  he  conceived  the  true  end  of 
philosophy  to  be,  to  free  mankind  from  the  dominion  of  perni- 
cious prejudices;  to  correct  their  vices;  to  inspire  them  with  a 
love  of  virtue,  and  thus  conduct  them  in  the  path  of  true  piety. 
He  taught  that  the  Supreme  Being  is  seen  in  his  works,  which 
demonstrate,  to  the  most  superficial,  his  existence  and  benevolent 
Providence.  Besides  the  Supreme  Being,  he  admitted  the  ex- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  95 

istence  of  beings  who  possess  a  middle  station  between  God  and 
man,  whom  he  supposed  to  be  concerned  in  the  management  of 
human  affairs.  He  believed  that  the  human  soul  is  a  divine 
principle,  which,  when  it  passes  out  of  the  body,  returns  to  hea- 
ven, and  that  the  existence  of  good  men  will  be  continued  after 
death,  in  a  state  in  which  they  will  receive  the  reward  of  their 
virtues.  The  whole  system  taught  by  this  philosopher,  incul- 
cated a  sublime  morality,  worthy  a  distinguished  place  by  the 
side  of  the  most  approved  systems  of  modern  times,  and  endea- 
vored to  impress  upon  the  mind  that  true  felicity  is  not  to  be 
derived  from  external  possessions,  but  from  wisdom,  which  con- 
sists in  the  knowledge  and  practice  of  virtue. 

Socrates  had  no  settled  or  established  place  where  he  taught 
the  principles  of  his  philosophy.  It  was  his  custom  in  the  morn- 
ing to  visit  the  different  public  places  of  exercise;  at  noon  the 
market  places,  and  to  spend  the  rest  of  the  day  in  those  parts 
of  the  city  most  frequented.  These  occasions  he  made  use  of 
for  the  purpose  of  communicating  lessons  of  wisdom.  Some- 
times he  collected  an  audience  in  the  Lyceum,  a  grove  on  the 
banks  of  the  Illyssus,  and  delivered  a  discourse.  His  usual  me- 
thod of  instruction,  however,  was  to  propose  a  series  of  questions 
to  the  person  with  whom  he  conversed,  and  having  first  gained 
his  assent  to  some  obvious  truths,  he  obliged  him  to  admit  others, 
because  of  their  resemblance  to  those  to  which  he  had  already 
assented.  He  never  assumed  the  air  of  a  morose  and  rigid  pre- 
ceptor, but  communicated  instruction  with  the  ease  and  pleasan- 
try of  polite  conversation.  By  this  easy  and  familiar  mode  of 
conveying  information,  he  gained  many  disciples,  and  his  doc- 
trines became  extremely  popular. 

Xenophon,  the  celebrated  historian,  was  one  of  the  favorite 
disciples  of  Socrates,  and  while  he  was  an  ornament  of  the  So- 
cratic  school  he  strictly  adhered  to  the  tenets  of  his  master. 
JEschines  was  an  obscure  Athenian,  who,  although  oppressed  by 
poverty,  devoted  himself  to  the  pursuit  of  wisdom  and  became 
highly  respectable  and  distinguished.  He  wrote  seven  dialogues 
in  the  spirit  of  his  school,  on  temperance  and  other  virtues. 
Simon^  another  disciple  of  Socrates,  was  originally  a  leather 
dresser  in  Athens,  but  acquired  distinction  for  his  adherence  to 
the  Socratic  system  of  philosophy,  and  the  zeal  and  talent  with 
which  he  endeavored  to  unfold  it*  principles.  Tbo  Jn«t  of  the 


96 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


immediate  disciples  of  Socrates  we  will  mention,  was  Cedes,  b  \ 
birth  a  Theban,  who  was  the  author  of  an  allegory  entitled  "A 
picture  of  human  life,"  which  is  still  extant.  From  this  school 
arose  many  philosophers,  who  became  the  founders  of  other 
sects,  entertaining  opinions  widely  different  from  each  other, 
and  from  the  school  from  which  they  sprung. 

The  Cyrenaic  sect,  was  founded  by  Aristippus,  and  was  so  cal- 
led from  the  city  of  Gyrene,  in  Africa,  the  birthplace  of  the 
founder.  While  Aristippus  was  attending  Olympic  games,  he- 
heard  of  the  wisdom  of  Socrates,  which  inspired  him  with  the 
desire  of  becoming  one  of  his  disciples,  and  having  been  admit- 
ted, he  soon  became  one  of  the  most  prominent  members  of  th( 
school.  A  certain  freedom  of  manners,  however,  which  he  had 
long  indulged,  was  not  entirely  subdued  by  the  austerity  of  So 
cratic  discipline,  and  in  consequence  thereof,  having  become 
displeasing  to  the  sect,  he  withdrew  from  Athens  and  established 
a  school  of  his  own.  He  passed  some  time  at  the  court  of  Dio- 
nysius,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  where,  from  a  certain  versatility  of 
disposition,  he  accommodated  himself  to  the  manners  of  the 
court,  and  ridiculed  the  severe  discipline  and  gravity  of  de- 
meanor of  other  philosophers,  among  whom  was  Plato,  then  also 
resident  at  the  court  of  Dionysius.  With  that  accommodating 
spirit  for  which  he  seems  to  have  been  distinguished,  he  depart- 
ed from  the  rigid  morality  of  his  master,  and  established  a  much 
more  indulgent  system,  which  soon  had  many  followers,  but 
which  was  of  but  short  duration.  After  his  death  his  doctrines 
were  taught  by  his  daughter  Arete.  The  most  eminent  of  his 
disciples  was  Hegesias,  who  wrote  a  book  to  prove  that  death,  as 
the  cure  of  all  evil,  is  the  greatest  good — a  doctrine,  which  so 
far  regards  the  cure  of  an  evil,  may,  without  a  scruple,  be  ad- 
mitted, but  mankind  are  too  much  attached  to  this  life,  and  too 
much  addicted  to  its  enjoyments,  to  admit  that  it  is  the  greatest 
good. 

The  Megaric  or  Eristic  sect,  was  founded  by  Euclid  of  Megara ; 
it  was  called  Megaric,  from  the  birthplace  of  its  founder,  and 
Eristic,  from  its  disputatious  character.  Euclid  was  endowed 
by  nature  with  a  quick  and  penetrating  genius,  and  early  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  philosophy.  He  removed  from  Megara 
io  Athens,  to  attend  the  lessons  of  Socrates,  but  evincing  a  strong 
propensity  for  disputation,  which  Socrates  disliked,  a  separa- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  97 

uoii  took  place,  and  in  a  shoit  time  he  became  the  head  of  a 
school  at  Megara,  in  which  his  chief  employment  was,  to  teach 
the  art  of  disputation.  The  moral  doctrines  taught  by  Euclid, 
differed  but  slightly  from  those  of  Socrates.  He  taught  that 
there  is  one  supreme  good,  which  he  called  by  the  different 
names  of  Intelligence,  Providence,  God;  and  that  evil  consider- 
ed as  an  opposite  principle  to  the  sovereign  good,  has  no  physi- 
cal existence.  Euclid  was  immediately  succeeded  in  the  school 
of  Megara,  by  Eubulides,  a  strenuous  and  violent  opposer  of  A- 
ristotle.  The  most  distinguished  disciple  of  this  sect,  was  Stilpo 
of  Megara,  who  successfully  applied  the  moral  precepts  of  phi- 
losophy to  the  correction  of  his  natural  propensities.  So  fa- 
mous did  he  become,  that  when  he  visited  Athens,  the  people 
ran  out  of  their  houses  to  see  him,  and  the  most  eminent  philo- 
sophers attended  his  discourses.  After  the  death  of  Stilpo,  this 
sect  fell  into  disrepute. 

The  Eliac  sect  was  founded  by  Phczdo  of  Ellis,  who  adhered  so 
closely  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Socratic  school,  that  the  differ- 
ence is  scarcely  to  be  perceived.  On  his  death  the  school  was 
continued  by  Mencdemus  of  Eretria,  from  whom  it  also  had  the 
name  of  the  Eretraic  school,  on  its  being  removed  from  Ellis  to 
Eretria.  Menedemus  studied  philosophy  under  Plato,  and  it  is 
related  of  him,  that  he  was  so  poor,  that  in  order  to  enable  him 
to  pursue  his  studies,  he  went  among  the  criminals  in  the  public 
prisons  every  night  and  ground  corn,  by  which  means  he  was 
able  to  spend  the  day  in  attendance  upon  the  schools.  He  pos- 
sessed great  versatility  of  genius,  and  a  comprehensive  mind;  he 
declared  his  opinions  with  freedom,  inveighed  against  the  vices 
of  others,  and  by  the  purity  of  his  own  manners  commanded 
universal  respect.  After  his  death  the  Eliac  or  Eretraic  sect, 
losing  its  main  support,  did  not  long  exist  as  a  separate  school^ 
its  disciples  embracing  the  doctrines  of  one  or  the  other  schools 
then  in  existence. 

The  Academic  sect  was  founded  by  Plato^  the  most  illustrious 
and  distinguished  of  the  disciples  of  Socrates,  under  whose  in- 
structions he  placed  himself  at  twenty  years  of  age,  and  continu- 
ed eight  years.  He  was  born  in  the  island  of  jEgina,  about  430 
years  before  Christ,  and  is  said  to  have  been  descended  on  his 
father's  side  from  Codrus,  and  on  his  mothers  from  Solon.  He 
possessed  a  versatility  of  talent,  which  first  induced  him  to  turn 

13 


93  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

his  attention  to  poetry,  and  particularly  dramatic  poetry.  He  i? 
said  to  have  been  the  author  of  about  forty  comedies,  a  few  frag- 
ments of  which  only  remain.  Happening  to  hear  a  discourse 
from  Socrates,  he  forsook  the  muses  and  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  philosophy.  In  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  he  visited 
Magna  Grcecia,  where  he  was  instructed  in  the  mysteries  of  the 
Pythagorean  school,  and  afterwards  travelled  into  Egypt,  where 
he  was  initiated  into  the  mysterious  learning  of  the  priesthood. 
Returning  thence  he  settled  in  Athens,  and  opened  his  school  in 
a  public  grove,  called  the  Academy,  adorned  with  statues  and 
temples  and  planted  with  lofty  trees.  This  new  school  soon  be- 
came celebrated,  and  attracted  disciples  from  various  quarters. 
Plato  was  more  attached  to  speculative,  than  useful  science,  and 
some  of  his  speculations  and  opinions,  appear  not  only  extrava- 
gant, but  absurd,  according  to  our  present  views,  when  the  light 
of  reason  is  assisted  by  the  superior  light  of  revelation.  But 
when  we  remember,  that  Plato  and  the  other  philosophers  of  his 
day,  were  directed  in  their  researches  solely  by  a  vigorous  un- 
derstanding, and  were  compelled  to  combat  the  corruptions  of  a 
long  established  system  of  idolatry,  we  cannot  but  admire  tlu- 
grandeur  and  sublimity  of  their  conceptions,  and  the  general 
justness  of  the  doctrines  they  taught.  Plato  taught,  that  mairs 
highest  good  consists  in  the  contemplation  and  knowledge  of 
the  first  good,  which  is  mind  or  God — that  the  only  power  in 
human  nature,  which  can  acquire  a  resemblance  to  the  supreme 
God,  is  reason — that  the  soul  of  man  is  immortal,  and  after  death 
will  be  admitted  to  a  participation  of  the  blessings  prepared  for 
the  virtuous — that  the  great  end  of  knowledge  is  to  render  man 
as  like  to  God,  as  the  condition  of  human  nature  will  permit, 
and  that  the  body  is  a  prison  from  which  the  soul  must  be  re- 
leased, before  it  can  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  those  things  which 
are  real  and  immutable.  He  maintained  the  existence  ot 
two  beings,  one  self-existent  and  the  other  created ;  that  the 
world  was  created  by  the  self-existent  cause,  from  the  rude  and 
indigested  mass  of  matter,  which  had  existed  from  all  eternity, 
and  which  had  even  been  animated  by  an  irregular  principle  of 
motion.  From  these  materials  were  formed  the  four  elements, 
and  the  heavens  and  the  earth;  and,  into  the  active  principle 
of  matter,  the  divinity  infused  a  rational  soul — the  souls  of  men 
were  formed  from  the  remainder  of  the  rational  soul  of  th«v 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 


world,  which  had  previously  given  existence  to  the  invisi- 
ble gods  and  demons.  He  divided  the  passions  into  two  classes; 
the  irascible,  seated  in  the  breast,  and  the  sensual,  seated  in 
the  belly  and  inferior  parts  of  the  body.  This  division  induced 
the  fanciful  comparison  of  the  soul  to  a  small  republic,  of  which 
the  reasoning  and  judging  powers  were  stationed  in  the  head,  as 
in  a  citadel,  and  of  which  the  senses  were  the  guards  and  ser- 
vants. This  distinguished  philosopher  was  the  first  in  the  hea- 
then world,  who  supported  the  immortality  of  the  soul  by  argu- 
ments, deduced  from  truth  and  experience.  He  contended  that 
death  could  not  destroy  the  soul,  which  was  of  divine  origin, 
and  of  an  uncorrupted  and  immutable  essence,  and  which, 
though  inherent  for  a  while  in  matter,  could  not  lose  that  power 
which  was  an  emanation  of  God.  The  works  of  Plato  are  divi- 
ded into  physical,  logical,  ethical  and  political,  and  are,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  letters,  written  in  the  form  of  dialogues. 
He  lived  to  the  advanced  age  of  eighty-one  years,  and  died  about 
349  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  Statues  and  altars  were 
erected  to  his  memory,  and  the  day  of  his  birth  long  continued 
to  be  celebrated  by  his  followers  as  a  festival. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Plato,  the  Academic  sect,  having  lost 
its  chief  pillar,  was  split  into  the  old,  the  middle  and  the  new  aca^ 
demy.  The  old  consisted  of  the  followers  of  Plato,  who  taught 
the  doctrines  of  their  master  without  mixture  or  corruption;  among 
whom  were  Spcusippus,  Xenocrates,  Polcmo  and  Grantor.  Speusippus 
was  a  nephew  of  Plato,  and  filled  the  chair  of  the  Platonic  school 
during  eight  years,  when  being  rendered  incapable  of  attending  to 
its  duties,  in  consequence  of  a  paralytic  stroke,  he  resigned  in 
favor  of  Xenocrates,  who  first  studied  under  jEschines,  but  af- 
terwards became  a  disciple  of  Plato.  He  was  of  a  gloomy  and 
severe  temper,  which  was,  in  a  good  measure,  corrected  by  the 
instructions  of  his  master.  He  was  celebrated  not  only  for  his 
wisdom,  but  his  virtues,  and  such  perfect  reliance  had  the  Athe- 
nians on  his  integrity,  that  when  called  upon  to  give  evidence  in 
a  certain  case,  his  word  was  deemed  sufficient,  and  Philip  of  Ma- 
eedon  said,  that  of  all  those  who  came  to  him  on  embassies  from 
foreign  states,  Xenocrates  was  the  only  one  he  had  not  been  able 
to  purchase.  He  died  in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age, 
about  316  years  before  Christ.  Pohmo*  in  his  youth,  was  ad- 


,         er 


jQO  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

dieted  to  a  licentious  course  of  life,  but  was  happily  turned  from 
his  dissipated  and  irregular  habits  by  the  arguments  of  Xenocrates. 
So  ardently  did  he  afterwards  pursue  the  study  of  philosophy 
and  the  path  of  virtue,  that  he  was  judged  worthy  to  fill  the 
chair  of  the  Academy  on  the  death  of  Xenocrates.  Grantor 
was  celebrated  for  the  purity  of  his  moral  doctrines ;  Cicero 
calls  his  discourse  "On  Grief,"  a  small,  but  golden  piece,  adapt- 
ed to  heal  the  wounds  of  the  mind,  not  by  encouraging  stoical  in- 
sensibility, but  by  suggesting  arguments  drawn  from  the  purest 
fountains  of  philosophy. 

The  middle  academy  consisted  of  those  who  receded  from  the 
Platonic  school,  without  entirely  deserting  it,  and  was  founded 
by  Arcesilaus,  a  native  of  jEolis.  He  was  early  instructed  in 
mathematical  science  and  polite  literature,  but-becoming  ena- 
moured of  the  study  of  philosophy,  he  first  attended  the  lectures 
of  Theophrastus,  then  those  of  Polemo,  and  at  length  founded 
the  middle  academy,  in  which  he  adhered,  mainly,  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Plato.  The  doctrines  taught  by  Arcesilaus,  and  which 
appear  to  differ  from  those  of  Plato,  were,  that  although  there 
is  a  real  certainty  in  the  nature  of  things,  every  thing  is  uncer- 
tain to  the  human  understanding,  and  consequently,  that  all  con- 
fident assertions  are  unreasonable.  He  thought  it  disgraceful 
to  assent  to  any  proposition,  the  truth  of  which  is  not  fully  esta- 
blished, and  maintained,  that  in  all  questions  opposite  opinions 
may  be  supported  by  arguments  of  equal  weight.  He  disputed 
against  the  testimony  of  the  senses,  and  the  authority  of  reason ; 
but  at  the  same  time  acknowledged,  that  'they  are  capable  of 
furnishing  probable  opinions  sufficient  for  the  conduct  of  life. 
Arcesilaus  himself  seems  to  have  been  a  singular  compound  of 
virtue  and  vice.  He  united  many  moral  qualities  which  pro- 
cured him  esteem,  but  he  was  at  the  same  time  fond  of  splendid 
entertainments  and  luxurious  living,  and  died  at  the  age  of  sev- 
enty-five, from  excessive  drinking. 

rThe  new  academy  was  founded  by  Carneades9  a  native  of  Cy- 
rene,  in  Africa,  who  is  represented  as  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
ornaments  of  the  academy,  and  who  received  the  first  knowledge 
in  the  art  of  reasoning  from  Diogenes,  the  Stoic.  It  was  the 
doctrine  of  the  new  academy  that  the  senses,  the  understanding 
arid  the  imagination  frequently  deceive  us,  and  therefore  cannol 
bo  infallible  judge?  of  truth:  bnf  that,  from  the  impression 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  '' 


which  we  perceive  to  be  produced  on  the  mi  nd','by>  moans  orffc 
senses,  we  infer  appearances  of  truth,  or  probabilities.  These 
impressions  were  called  phantasies  or  images,  which,  it  was  main- 
tained, did  not  always  correspond  to  the  real  nature  of  things, 
and  that  there  is  no  infallible  method  of  determining  when  they 
are  true  or  false,  and  consequently  that  they  afford  no  certain 
criteria  of  truth.  As  the  foundation  of  morals,  Carneades 
taught,  that  the  ultimate  end  of  life  is  the  enjoyment  of  those 
things  towards  which  we  are  directed  by  the  principles  of  na- 
ture. Carneades  was  succeeded  by  Clitomachus,  a  native  of 
Carthage.  He  is  said  to  have  written  four  hundred  books  on 
subjects  of  philosophy.  He  was  preceptor  in  the  academy  from 
the  death  of  Carneades  until  about  100  years  before  Christ,  a 
period  of  thirty  years.  Antiochus  of  Ascalon,  was  the  last  pre- 
ceptor of  the  Platonic  school  in  Greece.  He  resigned  the  chair 
about  eighty  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 

The  Peripatetic  sect  was  founded  by  Aristotle,  a  philosopher  o^ 
extensive  and  penetrating  genius  and  various  talent,  fitted  to 
shine  in  any  department  of  human  knowledge.  He  was  a  na- 
tive of  Stagyra,  a  town  of  Thrace,  and  was  hence  called  the 
Stagyrite.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  entered  the  school  of 
Plato,  under  whose  instructions  he  continued  twenty  years,  at 
the  expiration  of  which  time  he  established  a  school  of  his  own. 
He  held  his  master  Plato  in  great  veneration,  and  on  his  death 
he  erected  a  monument  to  his  memory,  with  the  following  in- 
scription: 

To  Plato's  sacred  name  this  tomb  is  rear'd; 
A  name  by  Aristotle  long  rever'd  ! 
Far  hence,  ye  vulgar  herd  !  nor  dare  to  stain 
With  impious  prayer  this  ever  hallow'd  fane. 

Plato  held  Aristotle  in  equal  esteem,  and  so  highly  did  he 
prize  his  vigorous  intellect,  that  he  called  him  the  mind  of  his 
school.  Aristotle  opened  his  school  in  the  Lyceum,  a  grove  in 
the  suburbs  of  Athens,  where  he  held  conversations  on  the  sub- 
jects of  philosophy,  walking  as  he  discoursed;  whence  his  fol- 
lowers were  called  Peripatetics.  The  doctrines  taught  by  A- 
ristotle  were  divided  into  two  classes,  namely,  the  Exoteric,  com- 
prehending such  subjects  as  he  judged  proper  for  the  public 
ear,  such  as  logic,  rhetoric  and  other  sciences  of  a  general  ap- 


102  .    HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

. 
•  pfl€atibft  to  tlit;1  Common  affairs  of  men:  and  the  Esoteric,  which 

treated  of  the  more  abstruse  doctrines  concerning  existence, 
nature  and  the  Divinity,  and  which  were  too  exalted  for  the 
great  mass  of  his  countrymen,  corrupted  as  they  were  by  the 
influence  of  the  idolatrous  worship  which  surrounded  them. 
The  Esoteric  doctrines  he  delivered  in  the  morning,  to  select  dis- 
ciples, whom  he  required  to  have  been  previously  instructed  in 
the  elements  of  learning,  and  to  have  given  evidence  of  posess- 
ing  minds  capable  of  receiving  and  comprehending  the  more- 
sublime  truths  of  philosophy.  The  Exoteric  doctrines  he  deli- 
vered in  the  evening,  to  a  promiscuous  auditory.  The  former 
he  called  his  morning,  the  latter  his  evening  walk. 

The  works  of  Aristotle  were  voluminous,  and  treated  of  a 
variety  of  subjects,  logical,  physical,  metaphysical  and  ethical; 
and  his  inquiries  into  the  arcana  of  nature,  in  the  various  de- 
partments of  animal,  vegetable  and  mineral,  greatly  exceeded 
the  investigations  of  preceding  philosophers — there  was  scarce- 
ly a  subject  then  known  but  exercised  his  pen.  Most  of  his 
writings,  particularly  those* on  subjects  which  he  communicated 
to  his  select  disciples,  are  extremely  difficult  to  comprehend, 
owing  to  the  concise  and  obscure  manner  in  which  he  treats 
them,  affording  a  striking  example  of  the  truth  of  the  maxim. 


I  strive  to  be  concise, 


I  prove  obscure 


The  philosophy  of  Aristotle  was  divided  into  three  branches 
Instrumental,  Theoretical  and  Practical.  Under  the  first  are  in- 
cluded his  doctrines  concerning  logic  and  rhetoric;  under  the 
second,  physics,  pneumatology,  ontology  and  mathematics;  un- 
der the  third,  ethics  and  policy. 

As  the  founder  of  a  new  sect,  he  would,  of  course,  differ  in 
many  essential  particulars  from  his  teachers.  With  regard  to 
the  formation  of  the  world,  he  believed  there  were  in  nature 
opposite  principles,  independent  and  underived,  from  which  all 
things  proceed.  These  principles  he  denominated,  Form,  Pri- 
vation and  Matter;  the  two  former  contrary  to  each  other,  the 
latter  the  common  subject  of  both.  Matter  and  form  he  consi- 
dered the  constituent  principles  of  things — privation  making  no 
part  of  their  constitution,  but  accidentally  associated  with  them. 
Primary  matter,  eternal  and  uncreated,  he  considered  destitute 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  103 

wt'  all  qualities,  and  therefore  not  body,  but  the  subject  on  which 
it  might  be  impressed.  The  causes  or  principles  of  the  universe 
he  divided  into  material,  of  which  things  are  made;  formal,  by 
which  every  thing  was  made  to  exist  as  it  is;  efficient,  by  the 
agency  of  which  any  thing  is  produced;  and  final,  or  the  end 
for  which  any  thing  is  produced.  During  the  dark  ages  of 
Christianity  as  well  as  of  literature,  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle 
was  held  in  great  veneration  by  the  most  influential  of  the  Chris- 
tian fathers,  who  adopted  and  incorporated  many  of  his  opini- 
ons with  the  doctrines  of  the  scriptures. 

Aristotle  continued  his  school  in  the  Lyceum  twelve  years? 
when  becoming  apprehensive,  from  the  versatile  character  of 
the  Athenians,  of  meeting  the  fate  of  Socrates,  he  retired  to 
Chalcis,  where  ho  died  about  320  years  before  Christ,  in  the 
sixty-third  year  of  his  age.  Previously  to  his  removal  from 
Athens,  at  the  request  of  his  disciples,  he  nominated  as  his  suc- 
cessor in  the  chair  of  the  Lyceum,  his  favorite  disciple  Theophras- 
tus, who,  although  he  deviated  in  some  particulars  from  the  doc- 
trincs  of  his  master,  well  sustained  the  reputation  of  the  school. 

Th&ophrastus  was  a  native  of  Eresuim,  a  town  of  Lesbos,  and 
was  born  three  hundred  ancl  ninety  years  before  Christ.  He  re- 
ceived the  rudiments  of  learning  in  his  own  country,  but  was 
afterwards  sent  to  Athens,  where  he  was  first  a  disciple  of  Plato 
and  afterwards  of  Aristotle.  When  he  succeeded  to  the  chair 
of  Aristotle,  he  conducted  the  school  with  so  much  reputation, 
that  he  had  about  two  thousand  scholars,  and  became  so  great  a 
favorite  with  the  Athenians,  that  when  one  of  his  enemies  ac- 
cused him  of  impiety,  the  accuser  himself  with  difficulty  escap- 
ed the  punishment  he  endeavored  to  bring  on  Theophrastus. 
As  a  writer  he  was  voluminous,  having  composed  upwards  of 
two  hundred  books  on  various  subjects.  Some  of  his  works  are 
still  extant,  among  which  are  treatises  in  several  departments  of 
natural  history,  to  which  he  seems  to  have  turned  his  attention 
particularly,  and  his  "Characters,"  an  excellent  treatise  on  mo- 
rals, exhibiting  the  moral  philosophy  of  the  Peripatetic  school. 
Theophrastus,  according  to  some,  died  in  the  85th,  according  to 
others,  in  the  107th  year  of  his  age.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
written  his  "Characters"  when  upwards  of  ninety. 

Theophrastus  was  succeeded  by  Strata  of  Lampsacus,  who 
filled  the  chair  with  great  reputation  for  eighteen  years.  In 


- 


j04  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

some  of  his  doctrines  he  departed  from  those  of  Aristotle.  Hr 
taught  that  the  world  has  neither  been  formed  by  the  agency 
of  a  Deity,  distinct  from  matter,  nor  by  an  intelligent  animating 
principle,  but  has  arisen  from  a  force  innate  to  matter,  originally 
excited  by  accident,  and  since  continuing  to  act,  according  to 
the  peculiar  qualities  of  natural  bodies.  He  also  taught  that 
the  seat  of  the  soul  is  in  the  middle  of  the  brain,  and  that  it  only 
acts  by  means  of  the  senses.  After  the  death  of  Strata,  thr 
school  of  Aristotle  continued  to  be  supported  by  many  distin 
guished  men,  until  the  fall  of  Grecian  liberty. 

The  Cynic  sect  was  founded  by  Antisthenes,  who,  because  of  the 
severe  censures  he  passed  upon  the  manners  of  the  age,  was 
surnamed  the  Dog.  He  was  an  Athenian  by  birth,  and  in  his  youth 
acquired  some  fame  for  his  valor  in  the  battle  of  Tanagra.  At- 
tracted by  the  wisdom  of  Socrates,  he  became  one  of  his  disci- 
ples, and  was  so  diligent  and  persevering  in  the  pursuit  of  wis- 
dom, that  he  visited  Athens  every  day,  although  he  resided 
about  five  miles  distant.  Inimical  to  every  thing  like  luxury  in 
diet  and  dress,  when  he  opened  his  school,  in  order  to  exhibit  an 
example  of  the  doctrines  he  taught,  he  wore  no  other  garment 
than  a  coarse  cloth,  and  suffered  his  beard  to  grow,  while  his 
diet  was  of  the  coarsest  kind.  In  these  particulars  he  was  close- 
ly followed,  if  not  exceeded,  by  some  of  his  disciples.  The  pe- 
culiarities of  this  sect  were,  a  contempt  for  effeminate  vices, 
and  a  rigorous  adherence  to  the  rules  of  moral  discipline.  Its 
great  objects  were,  to  subdue  the  passions  and  produce  simplici- 
ty of  manners  among  all  ranks  of  people.  The  Cynics  were, 
for  some  time,  regarded  as 

"The  stern  defenders  of  pure  virtue's  cause," 

and  commanded  attention  and  respect  from  the  austerity  of  their 
morals;  but  at  length  regarding  themselves  as  the  exclusive  cen- 
sors of  the  public  morals,  their  censures  degenerated  into  low 
and  vulgar  scurrility,  and  the  whole  sect  fell  into  deserved  con- 
tempt. One  of  the  most  celebrated  philosophers  of  this  sect 
was  Diogenes,  well  known  for  his  affectation  in  selecting  a  tub  as 
the  place  of  his  residence,  and  over  whose  tomb  was  erected  a 
column  of  Parian  marble,  terminated  by  a  figure  of  a  dog,  a  fit 
emblem  of  his  churlish  humor.  Diogenes  was  born  at  Sinope, 
city  of  Pontns.  His  father  being  obliged  to  leave  his  country. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

visited  Athens,  where  Diogenes  became  the  pupil  of  Antisthe- 
nes,  and  embracing  with  zeal  all  his  doctrines,  soon  become  the 
intimate  friend  and  companion  of  his  master.  He  determined 
to  become  distinguished ;  he,  therefore,  wore  a  coarse  cloak, 
carried  a  wallet  and  staff;  made  the  porticos  and  other  public 
places  his  habitation,  and  depended  upon  charity  for  his  daily 
bread.  Diogenes  possessed  a  penetrating  genius,  and  was  well 
acquainted  with  mankind.  His  natural  talents,  and  his  acquired 
information,  fitted  him  to  shine  in  society,  and  he  might  have 
become  useful  to  his  fellows  in  his  day  and  generation;  but  his 
usefulness  was  destroyed  by  his  eccentricity  of  character,  and 
instead  of  commanding  respect  and  esteem,  he  was  generally 
regarded,  as  he  deserved  to  be,  with  contempt.  The  Cynic  sect 
had  many  followers,  among  others  Hippurchia^  the  wife  of  Cra- 
tes, a  Theban  philosopher  of  the  same  school.  She  had  adopt- 
ed all  the  peculiarities  of  the  founder,  and  was  a  zealous  advo- 
cate of  his  doctrines. 

The  Stoic  sect  was  a  branch  of  the  Cynic,  and  was  founded  by 
ZenO)  a  native  of  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Zeno  first  received  his 
instructions  from  Crates,  the  Cynic,  and  afterwards  from  other 
philosophers,  and  having  thus  stored  his  mind  with  the  doctrines 
and  tenets  of  different  sects,  he  set  about  forming  a  system  of  his 
own.  He  at  length  founded  a  new  school,  which  he  held  in  a 
public  portico  called  2r«a,  the  porch,  hence  his  followers  were 
Called  Stoics,  or  philosophers  of  the  porch.  Zeno  soon  obtained 
numerous  followers,  and  on  account  of  his  integrity  was  held  in 
such  high  estimation  by  the  Athenians,  as  to  be  entrusted  with 
the  keys  of  the  citadel.  In  his  person  Zeno  was  tall  and  slen- 
der, of  severe  and  unbending  aspect.  In  his  mode  of  living  he 
was  remarkably  abstemious,  being  satisfied  with  the  most  frugal 
meals.  In  his  dress  he  was  plain,  but  neat,  therein  exhibiting  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  mode  of  dress  adopted  by  the  Cynics. 
He  lived  to  the  great  age  of  ninety-eight,  and  then  voluntarily 
put  an  end  to  his  life.  As  he  was  walking  out  of  his  school  he 
fell  and  broke  one  of  his  fingers,  upon  which,  striking  the  earth, 
he  exclaimed,  "Why  am  I  thus  importuned?  I  obey  thy  sum- 
mons," and  immediately  went  home  and  strangled  himself. 

The  Stoic  system  of  philosophy,  although  it  possessed  some 
doctrines  peculiar  to  itself,  was  a  mixture  of  the  doctrines  of 
Pythagoras,  and  those  of  different  sects  of  the  Ionic  school,  with 

14 


j0£  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

all  of  which  he  was  familiar.  The  absurdities  and  extravagan- 
cies which  are  to  be  discovered  in  the  doctrines  of  Zeno,  are  to 
be  attributed  to  his  endeavors  to  amalgamate  the  opposite  and 
conflicting  doctrines,  on  which  his  system  was  principally  found- 
ed, and  also  to  the  frequent  and  vehement  contests  between  him 
and  the  disciples  of  the  academy,  and  between  him  and  Epicu- 
rus. In  those  controversies,  Zeno  and  his  disciples  were  in- 
duced to  extend  their  arguments  and  defence  of  their  own  sys- 
tem, to  their  utmost  limit,  and  as  is  usual  on  such  occasions, 
they  were  frequently  inconsistent  with  themselves.  Notwith- 
standing, however,  the  absurdities  and  extravagancies  alluded 
to,  the  philosophy  of  Zeno  was,  perhaps,  as  much  to  be  approv- 
ed and  admired,  as  that  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  ancient 
philosophers. 

Zeno  taught,  that  there  existed  from  eternity  a  dark  and  con- 
fused chaos,  in  which  was  contained  the  first  principles  of  all 
future  beings — that  this  chaos  being  at  length  arranged,  became 
the  world  as  it  now  exists — that  the  universe^  though  one  whole, 
contains  two  principles,  distinct  from  the  elements — one  passive, 
the  other  active;  the  passive  principle  is  pure  matter  without 
qualities,  the  active  principle  is  reason,  or  God — that  the  active 
principle  or  God,  is  pure  ether,  or  fire,  inhabiting  the  exterior 
surface  of  the  heavens,  where  every  thing  divine  is  placed — that 
this  active  principle  is  underived,  incorruptible  and  eternal; 
possessed  of  intelligence,  good  and  perfect;  the  efficient  cause 
of  all  the  peculiar  qualities,  or  forms  of  things,  and  the  constant 
preserver  and  governor  of  the  world: 

"One  source  of  life,  one  animating  soul 

That  dwells  in  all,  and  forms  and  guides  the  whole." 

With  regard  to  the  structure  of  the  universe,  he  taught  thai 
the  world  is  spherical  in  its  form,  and  surrounded  by  an  infinite 
vacuum;  that  the  sun  is  a  sphere  larger  than  the  earth,  consist- 
ing of  fire  of  the  purest  kind — that  it  is  an  animated  being,  and 
the  first  of  derived  divinities — that  the  stars  are  fiery  bodies  pos- 
sessed of  perception  and  intelligence,  and  that  they  are  nourish- 
ed by  exhalations  from  seas  and  rivers — that  being  possessed  of 
intelligence,  they  are 


versed  in  the  will  of  fate 


And  unfold  what  good  and  ill  on  mortals  wait;" 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  107 

a  doctrine  held  by  the  Chaldean  and  Egyptian  astrologers.  He 
also  maintained  that  the  moon  is  spherical,  and  occupies  the 
lowest  part  of  the  etherial  regions — that  the  earth  is  the  most 
dense  part  of  the  world,  and  is  the  main  support  of  nature,  and 
that  it  is  the  centre  of  the  world  and  unmoveable. 

If  Zeno  himself  did  not  teach,  some  of  his  most  distinguished 
disciples  believed,  that  man  is  one  whole,  composed  of  body  and 
mind.  That  mind  is  a  spark  of  the  divine  fire,  which  is  the  soul 
©f  the  world.  That  eternal  reason,  by  which  all  nature  is  ani- 
mated, and  which,  by  its  productive  power,  communicates  essen- 
tial qualities  to  every  thing  that  exists,  impressed  the  forms, 
qualities  and  powers  of  man,  upon  certain  portions  of  matter. 
The  soul  of  man,  being  a  portion  of  the  Deity,  is  then  of  the 
same  nature;  a  subtle,  fiery  substance,  endued  with  intelligence 
and  reason.  They  believed  the  soul  to  consist  of  eight  parts; 
the  five  senses,  the  productive  faculty,  the  power  of  speech  and 
the  ruling  part  or  reason.  Some  of  the  philosophers  of  this 
school,  believed  in  the  existence  of  the  soul  after  death,  and  sup- 
posed it  to  be  removed  into  the  celestial  regions,  there  to  remain 
until  at  the  general  conflagration,  all  souls,  both  human  and 
divine,  will  be  lost  in  the  Deity;  others  suppose  that  it  was  ne- 
cessary before  the  soul  could  be  admitted  among  the  divinities, 
that  it  should  be  purged  of  its  inherent  vices  and  imperfec- 
tions, by  a  temporary  residence  in  the  aerial  region  between  the 
earth  and  moon,  or  in  the  moon  itself — a  doctrine  not  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  catholic  doctrine  of  purgatory.  The  opinion  of 
the  later  Stoics,  with  regard  to  a  future  state  of  existence,  is  evi- 
dently derived  from  the  doctrines  of  Christ;  thus  Seneca,  in  his 
letter  to  Marcia,  on  the  death  of  her  son,  says,  "The  sacred  as- 
sembly of  the  Scipios  and  Catos,  who  have  despised  life,  and 
obtained  freedom  by  death,  shall  welcome  the  youth  to  the  re- 
gion of  happy  souls.  Your  father  himself  shall  embrace  his 
grandson,  and  shall  direct  his  eyes,  now  furnished  with  new 
light,  along  the  course  of  the  neighboring  stars,  with  delight, 
explaining  to  him  the  mysteries  of  nature,  not  from  conjecture, 
but  from  certain  knowledge.  Like  a  welcome  guide  in  an  un- 
known city,  he  will  unfold  to  the  inquiring  stranger  the  causes 
of  the  celestial  appearances." 

The  Stoic  sect  continued  in  Greece,  until  about  fifty-two 
years  before  Christ,  and  had  many  disciples  and  followers,  dn- 


jyg  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

ring  the  flourishing  period  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  imme- 
diate followers  of  Zeno  in  Greece,  were  Pers&us,  Aristo,  Herillus 
and  Cleanthes;  the  most  celebrated  of  whom  was  Cleanthes,  a 
native  of  Assus  in  Lydia,  who  first  appeared  at  Athens  as  a 
wrestler,  but  catching  the  general  spirit  of  philosophising  which 
then  pervaded  all  ranks,  he  first  became  the  disciple  of  Crates^ 
the  academic,  but  afterwards  embraced  the  doctrines  of  Zeno? 
and  became  one  of  his  most  zealous  advocates. 

Cleanthes  was  succeeded  by  Crysippus,  a  native  of  Solis,  in  Ci- 
licia,  who  was  celebrated  for  his  adherence  to  the  doctrines  of 
Zeno.  He  is  said  to  have  written  about  seven  hundred  books, 
on  the  various  subjects  connected  with  philosophy.  He  died 
about  208  years  before  Christ,  in  the  eighty-third  year  of  his 
age.  Posidonius,  a  native  of  Apamea,  in  Sicily,  taught  with 
great  reputation  at  Rhodes,  and  visited  Rome  about  52  years 
before  Christ.  Among  those  who  attended  his  lectures,  in  the 
latter  city,  was  the  renowned  Cicero.* 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Literature  of  the  Greeks.  Greek  philosophers  of  the  Italic,  or  Pytha- 
gorean school.  Pythagoras.  Eleatic  sect.  Heraditcan  sect.  Epicu- 
rean sect.  Sceptic  sect. 

The  Italic  or  Pythagorean  school^  was  founded  by  Pythagoras* 
It  was  first  instituted  in  that  part  of  Italy  called  Magna  Gratia, 
and  hence  took  the  appellation  of  the  Italic  school.  The  histo- 
ry of  the  celebrated  founder  of  this  school  of  philosophy  is  en- 
veloped in  mystery;  a  mystery  which  he  himself,  in  order  the 
more  effectually  to  impose  upon  his  disciples,  endeavored  to 
maintain  in  his  explanations  of  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigra- 
tion of  souls.  It  is  uncertain  where  he  was  born ;  the  common 
opinion,  however,  is,  that  he  was  born  in  the  island  of  Samos, 

*  Potter's  Arch.  Grsec.;  Enfield's  Hist,  of  Philos.;  Edin.  Ency.;  Lemp.  Class.  Die.; 
Rees'sGycl.;  Plut.  Lives;  Seneca.  Ep.;  Cic.  Tus.  Cic.  de  ora.  La  Harpe,  Cours  de 
Lit.;  Gillie's  Arist.;  Xen.  Memo,  of  Socrates.;  Oeuvres  de  laBruyere;  Discours  sur. 
Theo.:  Travels  of  Anacharsis, 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  loa 

about  580  years  before  Christ.  Early  impressed  with  the  desire  of 
distinction  in  the  various  departments  of  learning,  he  departed 
for  Egypt,  then  the  seat  of  learning  and  philosophy.  He  soon 
acquired  the  confidence  of  the  priests,  and  was  by  them  initiated 
into  a  knowledge  of  all  their  mysteries  and  learning.  On  hi* 
return  from  Egypt,  after  an  absence  of  more  than  twenty  Years, 
he  opened  a  school  at  Samos,  but  the  Samians,  being  too  igno- 
rant to  profit  by  his  instructions,  he  retired  to  Magna  Grcecia,  and 
established  his  school  atCrotona,  where  he  propagated  his  doc- 
trines with  such  success,  as  soon  to  effect  a  wonderful  reforma- 
tion in  the  morals  of  the  people. 

The  mode  of  instruction  adopted  by  Pythagoras,  was  exoteric 
and  esoteric,  or  public  and  private,  in  which  he  followed  the  man- 
ner of  the  Egyptian  priests,  who  successfully  practised  it,  and 
thus  obtained  and  preserved  an  extensive  influence  over  the 
people.  The  exoteric  instructions  were  delivered  publicly,  and 
related  to  subjects  of  a  general  nature,  but  none  were  admitted 
to  a  knowledge  of,  or  a  participation  in,  the  esoteric  doctrines, 
until  after  a  long  and  severe  probation.  This  probationary  dis- 
cipline was  a  most  severe  system  of  self  denial,  intended  to  sub- 
due every  inclination  towards  luxurious  indulgence;  nor  was 
any  one  admitted,  until  he  was  assured  of  the  docility  of  his 
disposition,  and  his  power  of  keeping  secrets.  After  such  trial 
as  was  judged  necessary,  which  extended  from  two  to  five  years, 
if  the  candidate  was  esteemed  worthy  of  confidence,  a  full  ex- 
planation of  the  secret  doctrines  was  delivered,  but  was  not  suf- 
fered to  be  committed  to  writing.  In  order  to  inure  his  disci- 
ples to  self  denial,  a  virtue  which  he  regarded  of  primary  in> 
portance,  he  resorted  to  various  expedients;  he  sometimes  caus- 
ed a  table  richly  furnished,  to  be  spread  before  them,  and  when 
they  were  impatiently  expecting  to  gratify  their  appetites,  he 
commanded  the  whole  to  be  taken  away,  and  dismissed  them 
without  refreshment.  He  suffered  them  to  wear  no  garments 
but  of  the  simplest  kind,  nor  would  he  indulge  them  in  any  thing 
calculated  to  inflame  their  passions,  cherish  voluptuous  desires, 
or  produce  any  thing  like  effeminacy  of  character. 

The  philosophical  doctrines  of  this  distinguished  philosopher, 
differed  in  many  important  particulars  from  those  of  the  Ionic 
school,  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  judge  from  such  as  have  been 
hfinded  down  to  us.  To  ascertain  with  precision,  what  those 


j'lO  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

doctrines  were,  is  difficult,  because  of  the  uncertain  mode  in 
which  they  were  preserved — they  were  taught  in  a  secret  man- 
ner and  transmitted  by  oral  tradition,  and  were,  therefore,  liable 
to  misrepresentation.  Pythagoras  considered  the  end  of  phi- 
losophy to  be,  to  free  the  mind  from  whatever  has  a  tendency  to 
hinder  it  from  the  contemplation  of  immortal  truth,  and  the 
knowledge  of  divine  and  spiritual  objects — to  produce  this  effect, 
it  was  necessary  to  proceed  by  easy  and  regular  gradations. 
The  first  step  towards  wisdom,  he  considered  the  study  of  math- 
ematics, or  the  science  of  numbers  and  magnitude,  which  he 
divided  into  four  parts;  two  respecting  numbers,  and  two  res- 
pecting magnitude ;  the  two  former  treat  of  arithmetic  and  music, 
the  latter  of  geometry  and  astronomy.  These  were  of  course 
considered  as  preparatory  to  a  knowledge  of  more  exalted  sub- 
jects. In  these  preparatory  exercises,  arithmetic  held  the  first 
place, and  music  the  second;  he  considered  music  not  only  as  an 
art  to  be  judged  by  the  ear,  but  as  a  science  to  be  reduced  to 
mathematical  principles  and  proportions,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  discovered  the  musical  chords.  Pythagoras 
cultivated  geometry,  which  he  had  learned  in  Egypt,  with  great 
success,  and  reduced  it  to  a  regular  science.  In  astronomy  he 
taught  that  the  sun  is  the  centre  of  the  universe,  and  that  all  the 
planets  move  around  it  in  eliptical  orbits,  an  opinion  considered 
chimerical  and  improbable  until  the  16th  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  when  it  was  revived  and  demonstrated  to  be  true  by 
Copernicus,  a  native  of  Poland. 

With  regard  to  God,  he  taught  that  God  is  the  universal  mind, 
diffused  through  all  things,  invisible  and  incorruptible — that 
subordinate  to  the  Deity  there  are  three  orders  of  intelligence, 
gods,  demons  and  heroes,  each  entitled  to  the  homage  and  ado- 
ration of  man — that  the  air  is  full  of  spirits,  who  cause  sickness 
or  health  toman  or  beast,  by  means  of  dreams — that  the  soul  of 
man  is  a  self-moving  principle,  compounded  of  two  parts,  the 
rational,  seated  in  the  brain,  and  the  irrational,  which  includes 
the  passions,  and  is  seated  in  the  heart — that  the  sensitive  soul 
perishes,  but  the  rational  soul  is  immortal,  because  the  source 
from  whence  it  is  derived  is  immortal — that  after  the  rational 
soul  is  freed  from  the  chains  of  the  body,  it  assumes  an  etherial 
vehicle  and  passes  into  the  regions  of  the  dead,  where  it  remains 
until  it  is  sent  back  to  this  world,  to  inhabit  some  other  bodv. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


Ill 


Thus  it  appears  that  he  taught  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigra- 
tion of  souls,  and  hence  forhade  his  disciples  to  eat  the  flesh  of 
animals,  or  offer  animal  sacrifices,  in  their  religious  ceremonies. 

What  then  is  death,  but  ancient  matter  drest 

In  some  new  figure,  and  a  varied  vest? 

Thus  all  things  are  but  altered, nothing  dies; 

And  here  and  there  the  unbodied  spirit  flies, 

By  time,  or  force,  or  sickness  dispossess'd, 

And  lodges  where  it  lights,  in  man  or  beast; 

Or  hunts  without,  till  ready  limbs  it  find, 

And  actuates  these  according  to  their  kind  ; 

From  tenement  to  tenement  is  tost, 

The  soul  is  slill  the  same, the  figure  lost; 

And  as  the  soften'd  wax  new  seals  receives, 

This  face  assumes,  and  that  impression  leaves; 

Now  call'd  by  one,  now  by  another  name, 

The  form  is  only  chang'd,  the  wax  is  still  the  same; 

So  death,  thus  call'd,  can  but  the  form  deface, 

The  immortal  soul  flies  out  in  empty  space, 

To  seek  her  fortune  ia  some  other  place. 

Dryden  Tran.  OviJ,  Mela.  XV".  15*5. 

A  certain  celebrated  society  of  the  present  day,  whose  pow- 
erful influence  is  felt  in  every  quarter  of  the  civilized  world — 
which  lays  claim  to  a  high  antiquity,  and  whose  peculiar  doc- 
trines are  delivered  after  the  esoteric  manner  of  Pythagoras* 
rank  him  in  the  number  of  their  fraternity.  It  has  adopted  as 
one  of  the  mysterious  symbols  of  the  order,  that  geometrical 
problem,  on  the  discovery  of  which  he  is  said  to  have  sacrificed 
a  hecatomb.* 

Empcdodes  was  a  distinguished  philosopher  of  this  school ;  he 
was  born  at  Agrigentum,  in  Sicily,  and  flourished  about  450  years 
before  Christ.  With  the  character  of  a  philosopher,  he  united 
that  of  a  poet  and  historian,  and  his  poems  were  publicly  recited 
at  the  Olympic  games,  and  shared  with  Homer  and  Hesiod  the 
applause  of  the  multitude.  In  his  general  system  of  philosophy 
he  differed  but  little  from  his  master.  He  was  a  firm  believer 
in  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  the  soul,  which  he  in- 
geniously and  warmly  supported  in  a  poem  "On  Nature."  He 
believed  the  soul  to  consist  of  two  parts,  namely,  the  sensitive, 
produced  from  the  first  principle  with  the  elements;  and  the  ra- 

*  This  sacrifice  of  a  hecatomb  or  one  hundred  oxen,  does  not  agree  with  the  Pytha- 
gorean doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and  which  prohibited  thp  shedding  o< 
hlood. 


Jfc 


H%  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

tional,  a  demon,  sprung  from  the  divine  soul  of  the  world,  and 
sent  down  into  the  body  as  a  punishment  for  its  crimes  in  a  former 
state,  to  remain  there  till  it  is  sufficiently  purified  to  return  to 
God.  He  entertained  the  singular  opinion  that  in  this  transmi- 
gration of  the  soul,  it  may  inhabit  not  only  different  human  bodies, 
but  the  body  of  any  animal  or  plant.  Lucretius,  a  philosopher 
of  a  different  sect,  in  his  poem  "On  the  nature  of  things,"  thus 
speaks  of  Empedocles: 


in  honest  fame, 


First  of  his  sect;  whom  Agrigentum  bore 

In  cloud-capt  Sicily 

Here  vast  Chary bdis  raves;  here  ./Etna  rears 
His  infant  thunders,  his  dread  jaws  unlocks 
And  heaven  and  earth  with  fiery  ruin  threat :- 
Here  many  a  wonder,  many  a  scene  sublime 
As  on  he  journeys,  checks  the  traveller's  steps; 
And  shows,  at  once,  a  land  in  harvest  rich 
And  rich  in  ages  of  illustrious  fame. 
But  nought  so  wondrous,  so  illustrious,  nought 
So  fair,  so  pure,  so  lovely,  can  it  boast, 

Empedocles,  as  thou!  — " 

Good's  Trans,  of  JLucr. 

The  manner  of  his  death  is  uncertain.  Whilst  some  say  that 
Fie  closed  his  life  in  Greece,  others  assert,  that  his  curiosity  led 
him  to  a  close  inspection  of  the  crater  of  Mount  ^Etna,  when  in 
a  state  of  fiery  eruption,  and  that  he  perished  in  the  flames. 

On  the  death  of  Pythagoras,  his  doctrines  were  taught  for 
many  years  by  a  succession  of  his  disciples,  until  his  school  was 
split  into  the  Eleatic^  the  Heraditean^  the  Epicurean  and  the  Scep- 
tic sects. 

In  his  school  of  Crotona,  he  was  succeeded  by  AristeuS)  who 
was  eminent  for  his  knowledge  of  mathematics.  He  taught  the 
doctrines  of  his  master  thirty-nine  years,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Mncsarchus,  the  son  of  Pythagoras.  Pythagorean  schools  were 
afterwards  established  at  Heraclea,  a  town  of  Sicily,  near  Agri- 
gentum; at  Metapontum,  a  town  of  Lucania,  in  Italy,  and  at 
Tarentum,  a  town  of  Calabria,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Ga- 
lesus,  now  the  Galeso.  These  schools  were  conducted  by  cele- 
brated philosophers,  and  attained  considerable  eminence. 

Let  us  now  take  some  notice  of  the  different  sects  which  sprung 
from  the  Italic  or  Pythagorean  school. 

The  Eleatic  sect,  was  founded  by  Xenophancs,  a  native  of  Co- 


tii 

- 


HIST071Y  OF  LITERATURE.  1 1S 

lophon,  a  town  of  Ionia,  and  numbered  among  its  disciples,  Par- 
menides,  Zerio  of  Elea,  Democritus  and  Diagoras.  Xenophanes 
early  left  his  native  country  and  settled  in  Sicily,  where  he  lived 
some  years ;  he  then  passed  over  into  Magna  Grcecia,  where  he 
became  a  disciple  of  the  Pythagorean  school,  and  afterwards  a 
distinguished  preceptor.  With  the  freedom  which  characterizes 
a  liberal  mind,  he  ventured  to  differ  from  some  of  the  doctrines 
of  Pythagoras  and  his  followers,  and  introduce  opinions  of  his 
own,  and  at  length  founded  a  new  sect,  afterwards  called  the  Ele- 
atic,  from  the  town  of  Elea,  the  birthplace  of  Parmenides  and 
Zeno.  Some  of  the  doctrines  of  this  school  are,  that  whatever 
is,  always  has  been  from  eternity,  without  deriving  its  existence 
from  any  prior  principle — that  nature  is  one  and  without  limit — 
that  the  one  infinite,  eternal  and  homogeneous  universe,  is  immu- 

ble  and  incapable  of  change — that  God  is  one  incorporeal, 
eternal  being,  and,  like  the  universe,  spherical  in  form — that  he 
is  of  the  same  nature  with  the  universe;  is  intelligent  and  per- 
vades all  thing?,  but  bears  no  resemblance  to  human  nature  either 
in  body  or  mind.  They  also  taught,  that  there  are  innumerable 
worlds — that  there  is  in  nature  no  real  production,  decay  or 
change — that  there  are  four  elements,  and  that  the  earth  is  the 
basis  of  all  things — that  the  stars  arise  from  vapours,  which  are 
extinguished  by  day  and  ignited  by  night — that  the  sun  consists 
of  fiery  particles  collected  by  humid  exhalations  and  daily  re- 
newed, and  that  his  course  is  rectilinear — that  there  are  as  many 
suns  as  there  are  different  climates  of  the  earth,  and  that  the 
moon  is  an  inhabited  world.  From  some  of  the  doctrines  here 
laid  down,  it  would  seem  that  Xenophanes  widely  departed  from 
the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras,  particularly  in  that  relating  to  the 
heavenly  bodies.  Pythagoras  entertained  much  clearer  and 
more  distinct  ideas  of  the  formation  of  the  universe,  than  to  sup- 
pose that  the  stars  were,  like  some  meteors,  produced  by  exhala- 
tions from  the  earth,  and  were  renewed  every  night,  and  that  the 
sun  was  produced  in  the  same  way  and  daily  renewed.  It  is 
probable  that  the  doctrines  thus  attributed  to  Xenophanes,  are 
the  invention  of  later  times,  or  have  originated  in  the  misconcep- 
tions of  those  who  have  but  superficially  examined  the  opinions 
of  his  school. 

The  Heraclitean  sect  was  instituted  at  Ephesus  by  Heraditus^ 
one  of  the  disciples  of  Xenophanes*     His  natural  temper  is  rep- 

15 


114  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

resented  as  being  splenetic  and  melancholy,  and  he  shunned  all 
intercourse  with  the  world,  devoting  himself  to  retirement  and 
contemplation.  He  made  choice  of  a  mountainous  retreat  for 
his  place  of  residence,  and  lived  upon  the  natural  products  of 
the  earth.  He  flourished  about  504  years  before  Christ,  and 
died  at  sixty  years  of  age.  He  taught  that  fre  is  the  principal 
from  which  all  things  in  nature  are  produced — that  this  principle 
consists  in  small  indivisible  parts  or  atoms,  which  are  simple  in 
their  natures  and  eternal — that  there  is  no  such  thing  in  the  uni- 
verse as  rest,  all  the  particles  composing  the  fiery  principle  being 
perpetually  in  motion — that  the  world  comprehends  the  eternal, 
living  or  self-moving  fire,  which  was  neither  made  by  gods  nor 
men,  but  always  was  and  will  be — that  this  principle,  or  soul  of 
the  world,  is  God,  the  maker  of  all  things.  He  further  taught,-, 
that  the  heavenly  bodies  are  in  the  form  of  boats,  having  thr 
hollow  side  towards  us,  and  they  become  luminous  when  certain 
fiery  exhalations  from  the  earth  are  collected  within  them — that 
the  sun  is  no  larger  than  he  appears  to  the  sight,  and  become? 
eclipsed  when  its  convex  surface  happens  to  be  turned  towards 
the  earth — that  the  moon  is  of  the  same  form  and  nature,  and  its 
monthly  variations  are  caused  by  the  gradual  changes  of  its  po- 
sition towards  the  earth,  from  concave  to  convex,  and  the  re" 
verse — that  all  the  stars  are  nourished  by  exhalations  from  thr 
earth,  and  these,  as  they  a  re  more  or  less  splendid  and  warm, 
cause  the  varieties  of  day  and  night,  of  the  seasons  and  of  won 
ther. 

The  moral  part  of  the  philosophy  of  Heraclitus,  consisted  in 
the  belief,  that  the  end  of  life  is  to  enjoy  happiness — that  for 
this  purpose,  it  is  necessary  that  the  body  should  have  repose. 
and  its  wants  be  confined  into  as  narrow  limits  as  possible — thai 
it  is  of  more  importance  for  men  to  know  themselves,  than  to 
acquire  knowledge — that  human  life  is  the  death  of  the  soul,  as, 
whilst  it  continues  in  the  body,  it  is  confined  and  depressed,  and 
never  gains  its  true  freedom  and  activity,  till  it  returns  to  the 
divine  nature  from  which  it  emanates,  and  that  the  first  virtue 
is  to  be  temperate.  Heraclitus,  it  is  said,  took  great  pains  trr 
conceal  his  doctrines,  unlike  other  philosophers,  whose  object 
was  to  promulgate  theirs,  and  gain  as  many  diseiples  as  possible. 
He  deposited  his  writings  in  the  temple  of  Diana,  where  the) 
were  read  by  many  philosophers,  who  incorporated  a  part  of  hiF 

71 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  j15 

system  with  their  own — among  others  Plato  is  said  to  have  a- 
dopted  that  part  of  the  Heraclitean  philosophy,  which  treated 
of  the  nature  and  motion  of  matter.  Zeno  also  transferred 
some  of  the  tenets  of  Heraclitus  to  his  own  system.  The  Hera- 
clitean sect  became  extinct  soon  after  the  death  of  Socrates. 
The  celebrated  Hippocrates  belonged  to  this  sect. 

The  Epicurean  sect  was  founded  by  Epicurus,  who  was  born  at 
Gargettus,  in  the  vicinity  of  Athens,  and  was  hence  called  the 
Gargettian,  as  Aristotle  was  called  the  Stagyrite,  from  the  place 
of  his  birth.  This  sect  attained  to  very  great  distinction,  and 
could  number  among  its  disciples  some  of  the  most  distinguish- 
ed citizens  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Epicurus  first  opened  his 
school  at  Mitylene,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  but  soon  after  remov- 
ed to  Athens,  where  he  purchased  a  small  garden,  and  there 
taught  his  system;  hence  his  disciples  were  called  "philosophers 
of  the  garden."  The  moral  tendency  of  the  doctrines  of  Epicu- 
rus having  been  violently  assailed  by  some  of  his  contempora- 
ries, and  particularly  by  Zeno  and  his  disciples,  have,  as  we  be- 
lieve, been  much  misrepresented — doctrines  and  opinions  in  mo- 
rals have  been  attributed  to  him,  which  he  never  taught,  and  we 
think  a  fair  examination  of  his  principles,  as  they  have  been 
transmitted  to  us,  will  show  that  the  charges  made  against  him 
were  prompted  by  envy  of  his  superior  talents  and  reputation, 
rather  than  any  just  ground  of  censure.  Epicurus  in  his  own 
conduct  was  exemplary  for  his  temperance,  and  he  inculcated 
npon  his  followers,  plainness,  if  not  severity  of  manners,  and  a 
strict  government  of  the  passions,  as  the  best  and  surest  means 
of  passing  a  tranquil  and  happy  life.  In  his  diposition  Epicurus 
Was  lively  and  cheerful;  he  loved  to  be  surrounded  by  persons 
of  similar  character,  and  he  possessed  a  captivating  facility  of 
address,  that  lured  many  a  disciple  to  his  school.  He  taught  his 
disciples  to  walk  through  life  tranquilly  and  innocently — to  look 
on  death  as  its  gentle  termination,  which  it  became  them  to  meet 
with  ready  minds,  neither  regretting  the  past,  nor  anxious  for  the 
future.  The  school  of  Epicurus  soon  became  exceedingly  po- 
pular, rivaling  that  of  Zeno,  then  enjoying  great  reputation,  and 
disciples  came  from  all  parts  of  Greece  to  attend  his  lectures  and 
instructions. 

With  regard  to  nature,  Epicurus  taught  that  the  universe 
always  existed,  and  will  always  remain,  for  there. is  nothing  into 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

which  it  can  be  changed — that  it  consists  of  body  and  space, 
and  is  infinite,  and,  of  course,  without  limits — that  all  bodies 
consist  of  parts  of  which  they  are  composed,  and  into  which 
they  may  be  resolved,  and  these  parts  are  either  themselves  sim- 
ple principles,  or  may  be  resolved  into  such — that  these  first 
principles  or  atoms,  are  divisible  by  no  force,  and.  therefore, 
must  be  immutable — that  as  these  atoms  are  perpetually  in  mo- 
tion, or  making  an  effort  to  move,  they  must  be  moved  by  an  in- 
ternal impulse  called  gravity.  He  further  taught,  that  this 
world  is  not  eternal,  but  began  at  a  certain  time  to  exist — that  as 
every  thing  in  the  world  is  liable  to  the  vicissitudes  of  produc- 
tion and  decay,  the  world  itself  must  be  so  too.  He  considered 
that  the  world  was  formed  by  that  infinite  number  of  atoms, 
which,  with  infinite  space,  constituted  the  universe,  falling  into 
the  region  of  the  world,  were  collected  into  one  rude  and  indi- 
gested mass.  In  this  chaos,  the  heaviest  and  largest  atoms  first 
subsided,  whilst  the  smaller,  and  those  which  from  their  form 
would  move  most  freely,  were  driven  upwards,  and  rising  into 
the  outer  region  of  the  world,  formed  the  heavens;  those  which 
were  suited  to  form  fiery  bodies,  collected  themselves  into  stars, 
and  those  which  could  not  rise  so  high,  formed  themselves  into 
air;  from  those  which  subsided,  the  earth  was  produced,  which 
is  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  system.  With  regard  to  the 
soul  of  man,  he  believed  it  to  be  a  subtle,  corporeal  substance, 
composed  of  the  finest  atoms;  that  it  is  composed  of  four  dis- 
tinct parts,  namely,  fire,  which  causes  animal  heat;  an  etherial 
principle,  which  is  moist  vapor;  air — and  a  fourth,  called  sensa- 
tion, this  latter  principle  differing  from  the  three  former.  His 
chief  argument  in  favor  of  the  materiality  of  the  soul,  is,  thai 
if  it  were  not  corporeal  and  material,  it  would  neither  touch 
nor  be  touched,  and  consequently  could  neither  act  nor  suffer. 
He  considered  the  soul  as  only  capable  of  exercising  its  facul- 
ties of  sensation  by  means  of  the  bodily  organs;  that  thus  the 
body  partakes  of  the  sensations  of  the  soul,  and  upon  its  separa- 
tion becomes  wholly  insensible.  The  mind,  that  part  of  the 
soul  which  consists  in  the  power  of  thinking,  judging  and  deter- 
mining, he  believed  to  be  formed  of  particles  most  subtle  in  their 
nature,  and  capable  of  the  most  rapid  motion — that  in  whatever 
part  of  the  body  it  resides,  it  exists  as  a  portion  of  the  soul,  with 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  117 

which  it  is  so  closely  united  as  to  form  one  nature  with  it,  at  the 
same  time  retaining  its  own  distinct  power  of  thinking. 

In  morals  he  taught,  that  the  end  of  living  is  happiness,  and 
that  since  it  is  the  business  and  interest  of  every  man  to  be 
happy  in  life,  he  ought  to  employ  philosophy  in  the  search  of 
it — not  that  species  of  philosophy,  which,  according  to  the  Cynic 
rule,  consisted  in  austerity  of  manner  and  contempt  for  the  re- 
finements and  common  courtesies  of  society,  but  that  rational 
pleasure  which  refines  and  improves  existence,  and  leads  us  in 
the  more  flowery  paths  of  wisdom  and  virtue — for  certainly, 
man  can  be  wise  without  being  austere,  virtuous  without  being 
morose.  Epicurus  strongly  recommended  to  his  disciples  to  be 
prudent,  that  they  might  secure  their  own  tranquillity,  and  tem- 
perate, that  they  might  be  enabled  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  life 
without  its  inconveniences.  He  enjoined  upon  them,  to  be  mo- 
derate in  the  pursuit  of  honors  and  riches,  as  the  only  security 
against  disappointment  and  vexation — to  curb  their  passions  in 
all  things,  and  to  be  just  in  all  their  transactions  with  their  fel- 
low men.  By  the  practice  of  these  virtues,  they  would,  in  the 
bright  examples  of  their  lives,  disprove  the  assertions  of  (her 
enemies.  The  doctrine  of  the  Epicureans  differed  from  their 
rivals,  the  Stoics,  in  the  following  particulars:  the  latter  held 
God  to  be  the  soul  of  the  world,  diffused  through  universal  na- 
ture— the  former  held  atoms  and  space  to  be  the  first  principle 
of  all  things ;  the  Stoics  conceived  the  active  and  passive  princi- 
ple of  nature  to  be  connected  by  the  chain  of  fate;  the  Epicure- 
ans ascribed  every  appearance  in  nature  to  a  fortuitous  collision 
and  combination  of  atoms. 

The  Sceptic  sect  was  founded  by  Pyrrho,  a  native  of  Elea.  The 
distinctive  character  of  this  sect,  was,  that  its  disciples  doubted 
the  truth  of  every  system  of  philosophy  adopted  by  other  sects, 
and  held  no  settled  opinion,  but  that  every  thing  is  uncertain ; 
hence  it  was  called  the  Sceptic.  Pyrrho,  the  founder  of  this  sect 
first  studied  philosophy  under  Bryson,  the  son  of  Stilpo,  a  philo- 
sopher of  the  Megaric  sect.  He  afterwards  accompanied  the 
army  of  Alexander  to  India,  where  he  embraced  some  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Brahmins  and  Gymnosophists ;  on  his  return  to 
Greece  he  attended  the  lectures  of  other  philosophers,  and  at 
length  established  his  own  school,  in  which  he  taught  that  every 
object  of  human  inquiry  IP  involved  in  uncertainty.  The  prin- 


118 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 


cipal  supporter  of  this  sect  after  Pyrrho,  was  Timon,  who  was 
first  a  disciple  of  the  Megaric  sect.  This  school  was  almost  ex- 
tinct in  the  time  of  Cicero,  existing  only  at  Alexandria  under 
j£nesidemus,  who  wrote  a  treatise  on  its  principles. 

The  Grecian  philosophy,  with  the  exception  of  the  Stoic 
school,  was  chiefly  confined  to  Greece  and  the  neighboring 
countries,  until  about  the  time  of  the  conquests  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  when  it  was  disseminated  by  the  philosophers  of  his 
train  into  other  and  more  distant  lands.  After  the  final  conquest 
of  Greece,  by  the  Roman  arms,  her  philosophy,  literature  and 
elegant  arts,  no  longer  meeting  encouragement  in  a  "land  of  the 
free,"  was  transferred  to  Rome,  and  under  the  patronage  of  Au- 
gustus, contributed  to  make  the  city  of  Romulus  as  renowned  in 
learning,  as  she  was  renowned  in  arms.* 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Literature  of  the  Greeks.  Greek  Historians:  Cadmus  of  Miletus,  He- 
rodotus, Thucydidcs,  Xenophon,  Philistus,  Megasthenes,  Polybius. 
Diodorus  Siculus,  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus.  Grecian  Orators : 
Gcorgias,  Lysias,  Isocrates,  Demosthenes,  JEschines. 

WE  should  but  very  imperfectly  fill  the  task  we  have  un- 
dertaken, were  we  to  close  our  historical  sketch  of  the  litera- 
ture of  Greece,  without  some  notice  of  her  historians  and  her 
orators.  They  not  only  demand  a  place  in  this  imperfect  sketch, 
but  their  peculiar  merits  entitle  them  to  the  regard  of  all  who 
wish  to  be  considered  as  possessing  any  knowledge  of  the  varied 
and  interesting  history  of  times  long  past — of  warriors  and 
statesmen  who  have  played  their  parts  on  the  grand  theatre  of 
life,  and  have  long  since  slumbered  in  the  dust,  leaving  to  poste- 
rity the  inheritance  of  their  mighty  names.  It  is  to  their  indus- 
try and  research,  we  are  mainly  indebted  for  the  knowledge  we 
possess,  not  only  of  ancient  Greece,  but  of  other  ancient  nations 

*  Potter's  Arch.  Grcec.;  Enfield's  Hist,  of  Phil.;  Eden.  Ency.;  Lempriere's  Class 
Die.;  Reese's  Cycl.;  A  few  days  in  Athens;  Gibbon's  Rom.  Emp. ;  Mont.  Gran,  et Dec 
Adams'  Rom.  Ant.:  Kennet's  Rom.  Ant,:  Plutarch's  Lives. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  jjg 

distinguished  in  the  annals  of  history.  Without  their  light,  how 
imperfect  would  be  our  information  with  regard  to  the  mighty 
empire  founded  by  Cyrus  and  overturned  by  Alexander!  and 
how  little  would  we  know  of  those  great  events  which  exalted 
the  Grecian  name  to  the  pinnacle  of  renown,  and  placed  the 
names  of  a  host  of  heroes  and  patriots  upon  the  records  of  im- 
perishable glory. 

The  first  Grecian  historian,  of  whom  we  have  any  account,  is 
Cadmus  of  Miletus,  surnamed  the  ancient.  He  lived  about  550 
years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  wrote  an  historical  account 
of  the  cities  of  Ionia,  in  four  books.  After  him  was  another 
historian  of  the  same  name  and  place,  who  was  the  author  of  a 
history  of  Attica,  in  sixteen  books.  None  of  their  works  are  ex- 
tant. Between  this  period  and  the  time  of  Herodotus,  are  enu- 
merated several  other  historians,  who  enjoyed  considerable  re- 
putation in  their  day,  but  whose  works  are  now  lost.  The  most 
distinguished  are  Phenecydes  of  Athens,  and  Hecateus  of  Miletus. 
The  former  collected  the  traditions  relative  to  the  ancient  histo- 
ry of  Greece  and  some  of  the  neighboring  states;  the  latter  tra- 
velled into  Egypt,  and  composed  an  historical  work  interspersed 
with  interesting  geographical  details. 

The  earliest  historian,  whose  works  have  reached  us,  is  Hero- 
dotus. His  history  is  the  oldest  extant,  except  the  historical 
books  of  the  old  testament.  Herodotus  was  born  at  Halicar- 
nassus,  a  city  of  Caria,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  flourished  about  445 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  When  Herodotus  attained  to 
manhood,  in  conse'quence  of  the  tyrannical  and  oppressive  con- 
duct of  Lygdamu?,  prince  of  Halicarnassus,  he  removed  to  the 
island  of  Same  ,  where  he  studied  the  Ionic  dialect,  in  which  he 
composed  his  history.  After  several  years  residence  at  Samos. 
a  favorable  opportunity  having  presented  itself,  he  united  with 
a  party  of  his  countrymen  and  succeeded  in  expelling  Lygda- 
mus  from  his  native  city.  He  remained  there  but  a  short  time, 
when  contentions  having  arisen,  and  factions  formed,  he  again 
withdrew,  and  travelled  into  Egypt,  where  he  collected  those 
materials  relative  to  the  Egyptians  and  other  nations,  which  he 
has  so  skilfully  wrought  into  his  history.  After  this  great  work 
was  finished,  he  returned  to  Greece,  and  recited  it  at  the  Olym- 
pic games,  at  which  people  from  all  parts  of  Greece  were  as- 
sembled, and  was  listened  to  with  universal  delight.  This  hi*- 


1 20  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

tory  is  divided  into  nine  books,  each  book  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  one  of  the  Muses,  and  comprises  an  account  of  the 
Lydians,  lonians,  Lycians,  Egyptians,  Persians,  Greeks  and  Ma- 
cedonians, from  about  713  years  before  Christ,  to  the  year  479 
before  Christ.  Herodotus  has  obtained  the  distinguished  and 
flattering  title  of  "Father  of  History,"  as  well  on  account  of  his 
being  the  oldest  profane  historian  whose  works  are  extant,  con- 
taining the  history  of  nations  in  a  regular  and  methodical  man- 
ner, as  on  account  of  the  fidelity  of  the  narrative,  although 
sometimes  tinctured  with  the  marvellous.  His  language 
is  simple,  elegant  and  perspicuous,  but  in  the  whole  course 
of  his  history,  he  seldom  inquires  into  the  causes  of  the  particu- 
lar events  he  relates,  appearing  to  be  satisfied  with  the  simple 
narration.  He  describes  things  as  they  were,  and  events  as 
they  occurred,  without  the  prejudices  and  partialities,  so  distin- 
guishable in  modern  historians.  Before  the  time  of  Herodotus, 
nearly  all  the  Greek  historians  confined  their  histories  to  the 
transactions  and  events  of  a  single  country  or  city,  seldom  going 
into  other  lands;  they  never  attempted  to  connect  a  series  of 
events  relating  to  different  nations,  in  which  all  were  concern- 
ed, so  as  to  form  a  regular  and  connected  whole.  This  plan 
Herodotus  was  the  first  to  conceive  and  execute,  and  thus  placed 
before  his  countrymen,  in  one  view,  all  the  political  transactions 
in  which  they  had  been  immediately,  or  even  remotely  interest- 
ed, for  a  space  of  two  hundred  and  forty  years.  Herodotus  is 
supposed  to  have  died  at  Thurium,  a  city  of  Italy,  founded  by 
a  colony  of  Athenians,  where  it  is  said  his  tomb  was  found,  with 
an  inscription  declaring  that  "This  earth  contains  in  its  bosom, 
Herodotus,  son  of  Lyxes,  a  Dorian  by  birth,  but  the  most  illustri- 
ous of  the  Ionian  historians."* 

Contemporary  with  Herodotus,  but  several  years  younger, 
was  Thucydides,  celebrated  for  his  history  of  the  Peloponessian 
war.  He  was  present,  with  his  father,  at  the  Olympic  games, 
when  Herodotus  recited  his  history,  and  was  so  sensibly  affected 
by  the  recitation,  as  to  shed  tears.  This  circumstance  made  so 
deep  an  impression,  as  to  have  a  great  effect  upon  his  future 
literary  pursuits,  as  it  determined  him  to  employ  his  talents  in  a 
similar  undertaking.  Thucydides  entered  the  Athenian  army 

?  Beloe's  Herodotus:  Lemp.  Class.  Dk 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  12j 

during  the  Peloponessian  war,  and  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  a  detachment  for  the  relief  Amphipolis,  but  being  un- 
successful in  the  enterprize,  he  was  deprived  of  his  command, 
and  banished  from  Athens.  During  his  banishment,  which  con- 
tinued twenty  years,  he  employed  himself  in  the  composition  of 
the  history  of  the  Peloponessian  war,  which  has  rendered  his 
name  immortal.  He  spared  neither  labor  nor  expense  to  render 
it  perfectly  accurate:  for  this  purpose  he  visited  different  states 
and  consulted  soldiers  and  generals  who  were  concerned  in  the 
different  actions  which  he  describes.  This  work  is  written 
in  the  Attic,  the  purest  of  the  Grecian  dialects,  and  was  so  much 
admired  by  Demosthenes,  for  the  purity  and  elegance  of  its  style, 
that  he  not  only  studied  it  attentively,  but  transcribed  it  eight 
times.  Although  a  faithful  narrator  of  events,  and  profound 
and  judicious  in  his  reflections,  it  is  objected  to  him,  and  with 
justice,  that  he  puts  into  the  mouths  of  his  principal  characters, 
too  many  rhetorical  and  fictitious  speeches,  calculated  to  exhibit 
the  inventive  and  sprightly  genius  of  the  author,  without  en- 
hancing the  reputation  of  the  work  for  accuracy  and  fidelity. 
Another  objection  will  lie  as  to  the  arrangement,  or  the  manner 
in  which  he  carries  forward  the  history  of  events;  he  often  breaks 
off  in  the  details  of  transactions,  when  he  has  brought  them 
down  to  a  certain  period,  and  then  takes  up  others  which  he  left 
unfinished,  to  carry  them  forward  to  the  same  period,  thus  ren- 
dering it  tedious,  and  the  perusal  less  agreeable  than  it  would 
otherwise  be,  had  he  pursued  a  different  method.  His  history 
of  the  Peloponessian  war,  is  brought  down  to  the  twentieth 
year.  Thucydides  died  at  Athens,  In'  the  eightieth  year  of  his 
age,  391  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.* 

Xenophon  was  born  about  450  years  before  Christ,  and  was 
distinguished  as  an  historian,  a  general  and  a.  philosopher,  three 
characters  rarely  found  united,  at  least  in  modern  times.  He 
was  one  of  the  favorite  disciples  of  Socrates,  from  whom  he  re- 
ceived those  instructions  and  imbibed  those  precepts,  which 
were  of  infinite  service  to  him  in  after  life,  in  the  various  scenes 
through  which  he  was  destined  to  pass.  Whilst  yet  a  youth, 
Socrates  met  him  by  accident  in  a  narrow  passage,  and  being 
struck  with  his  external  appearance,  put  forth  his  staff  across  the 

'    Smith's  Thucydides ;  Cic.de  Ora. ;  Quint.  Ins. 


£22  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

path,  and,  stopping  him,  asked  where  those  things  were  to  be 
purchased,  which  are  necessary  to  human  life?  Xenophon  ap- 
pearing at  a  loss  for  a  reply,  Socrates  inquired  of  him  where- 
honest  and  good  men  were  to  be  found?  Xenophon  still  hesita- 
ting, Socrates  said  to  him,  "Follow  me  and  learn."  From  that 
time  Xenophon  became  a  disciple  of  Socrates;  he  was  distin- 
guished for  his  strict  adherence  to  the  principles  of  his  teacher, 
and  his  integrity,  piety  and  moderation  rendered  him  an  orna- 
ment of  the  Socratic  school.  As  a  general  he  is  celebrated  for 
the  masterly  manner  in  which  he  conducted  the  march  of  a  body 
of  ten  thousand  Greeks,  after  the  battle  of  Canuxa,  through  an 
enemy's  country,  on  their  return  to  Greece.  He  relates  their 
adventures  in  his  work  entitled  Anabasis.  After  his  return  to 
Greece,  Le  joined  the  standard  of  Agesilaus,  king  of  Sparta, 
and  fought  against  the  Thebans  in  the  battle  of  Cheronea.  The 
Athenians  displeased  with  his  conduct,  brought  a  public  accusa- 
tion against  him,  for  this  alliance  and  his  previous  engagement 
in  the  service  of  Cyrus,  and  condemned  him  to  exile.  The  Spar- 
tans, mindful  of  his  services,  provided  him  a  comfortable  retreat 
at  Scilluntes  in  Elea,  where  he  remained  with  his  family  until 
war  broke  out  between  the  Spartans  and  Eleans,  when  he  re- 
moved to  Corinth,  where  he  died,  in  the  ninetieth  year  of  his 
age,  about  359  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 

The  writings  of  Xenophon  were  numerous.  Besides  Anaba- 
sis, above-mentioned,  he  wrote  the  Cyropedia,  containing  an  ac- 
count of  the  life  and  actions  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  in  which  the 
relation  materially  differs,  in  many  important  particulars,  from 
that  of  Herodotus.  Some  critics  are  of  opinion,  that  this  work 
was  written  for  the  purpose  of  delineating  the  character  of  a 
perfect  prince,  and  not  with  a  view  of  exhibiting  a  faithful  nar- 
ration of  historical  facts.  His  Hdlenica  is  a  continuation  of  the 
history  of  the  Peloponessian  war,  which  he  takes  up  where  Thu- 
cydides  left  off.  His  Memorabilia  of  Socrates,  contains  an  ex- 
planation of  the  precepts  and  doctrines  of  the  Socratic  school, 
of  which,  as  we  have  already  seen,  he  was  a  distinguished  dis- 
ciple. The  language  of  Xenophon  is  remarkable  "for  sweet- 
ness, variety,  perspicuity  and  elegance.  Rich,  without  a  su- 
perfluity of  figures,  and  smooth  without  sameness  and  tedious 
uniformity.  His  sentiments,  are  such  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected from  the  most  faithful  and  judicious  of  the  disciples  of 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  123 

Socrates."     The  three  abovementioned,  occupy  the  first  rank 
among  Grecian  historians. 

Immediately  succeeding  Xenophon,  were  Philistus,  who  killed 
himself  356  years  before  Christ,  arid  Megasthenes,  who  flourished 
about  300  years  before  Christ.  Philistus  wrote  a  history  of  Si- 
eily  in  twelve  books, 'during  a  period  of  banishment  from  his 
native  country.  Mcgasthenes  wrote  a  history  of  the  nations  of 
the  east,  particularly  of  I;  dia,  which  was  highly  valued  in  his 
time,  and  was  frequently  quoted  and  referred  to  by  ancient  au- 
thors, when  they  had  occasion  to  speak  of  that  distant,  and  al- 
most unknown  land.  The  works  of  these  historians  have  perish- 
ed. About  this  period  also  lived  Ctesias  ofCnydus,  who  was 
physician  of  Artaxexes  and  long  lived  in  the  capital  of  Persia, 
and  having  had  an  opportunity  of  consulting  the  archives  of  the 
empire,  he  was  enabled  to  correct  some  of  the  errors  into  which 
Herodotus  had  fallen. 

About  170  years  before  Christ,  flourished  Polybius,  a  native  of 
3£egapolis,  in  Peloponessus.  Polybius  was  distinguished  as  a 
warrior,  a  statesman  and  historian.  Having  been  carried  as  a 
hostage  to  Rome,  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Achaian  league, 
he  attracted  the  notice  of  the  great  Scipio  Africanus,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  his  expedition  to  Africa,  and  was  present  at  the 
taking  of  Carthage ;  by  these  means  he  gained  a  complete  know- 
ledge of  the  military  institutions  arid  discipline  of  the  Romans. 
On  the  death  of  his  friend  and  patron,  Polybius  returned  to  the 
place  of  his  birth,,  where  he  died,  in  the  eighty-second  year  of 
his  age.  His  history  consisted  of  forty  books,  five  of  which  only 
remain,  comprehending  a  period  of  fifty-three  years,  from  the 
commencement  of  the  second  punic  war,  to  the  conquest  of  Ma- 
cedon  by  Paulus  ^Emelius.  Polybius  took  great  pains  to  inform 
himself  correctly  of  the  events  which  he  describes,  and  his  work 
is  held  in  high  esteem,  on  account  of  the  fidelity  with  which  it 
is  composed. 

Dwdorus  Siculus  was  a  native  of  Argyra  in  Sicily,  and  flourish- 
oii  about  44  years  before  Christ.  He  composed  an  universal 
history,  on  which  he  was  occupied  thirty  years.  He  spared 
neither  labor  nor  expense  in  the  collection  of  materials,  in  order 
that  his  work  might  be  full  and  complete.  This  work  was  di- 
vided into  forty  books,  of  which  only  fifteen  are  extant;  the  first 
jive,  which  bring  the  history  of  the  world  to  the  Trojan  war.  and 


424  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

from  the  eleventh  to  the  twentieth  hooks,  inclusive.  Mitford, 
whose  political  predelictions  are  well  known,  in  his  "History  of 
Greece,"  although  evidently  opposed  to  Diodorus,  probably  on 
account  of  the  warmth  with  which  he  supports  the  cause  of  liberty, 
admits,  that  notwithstanding  certain  deficiencies  in  his  narra- 
tive, he  is  an  honest  historian. 

About  the  same  time  flourished  the  last  of  the  Grecian  histo- 
rians, Dionysius,  of  Halicarnassus.  He  left  his  native  country  and 
resided  at  Rome,  where,  after  twenty  years  diligent  study  and 
research,  with  a  view  of  making  himself  acquainted  with  the 
antiquities  and  customs  of  the  Romans,  he  composed  and  pub- 
lished his  history.  This  work  consisted  of  twenty  books,  of 
which  the  eleven  first  are  extant,  comprising  a  period  of  three 
hundred  and  twelve  years.  It  is  valuable,  principally,  for  the 
description  of  the  manners,  customs  and  laws  of  the  Romans,  as 
observed  by  himself,  and  obtained  by  a  diligent  examination  of 
such  ancient  records  as  were  then  at  Rome.  In  addition  to  his 
merit  as  a  historian,  he  is  said  to  have  been  an  eloquent  and  ac- 
complished orator,  a  critic  and  a  politician ;  but  with  all  these 
qualities,  he  was  superstitious  and  credulous,  and  was  conse- 
quently often  led  into  absurdities  and  improbabilities. 

In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  noticed  the  principal  histori- 
ans of  Greece — men,  whose  genius  and  talents,  have  reflected 
honor  upon  the  land  that  gave  them  birth.  VVe  might  have 
mentioned  many  others,  but  all  that  we  could  have  said,  would 
have  amounted  to  scarce  any  thing  more  than  a  mere  enumera- 
tion of  names,  so  little  do  we  know  of  their  works.  A  sketch 
of  her  orators  will  conclude  all  we  have  to  say  on  the  subject  of 
Grecian  literature. 

The  separation  of  Greece  into  a  number  of  small  and  inde- 
pendent states,  the  popular  form  of  their  governments,  and  the 
spirit  of  liberty  which  pervaded  them,  afforded  a  favorable  op- 
portunity, and  an  ample  field,  for  the  exercise  of  the  art  of  ora- 
tory, and  the  display  of  the  powers  of  eloquence.  Hence  we 
find,  that  oratory  attained  its  highest  eminence  during  the  period 
of  Grecian  liberty,  and  declined  when  her  energies  were  cramp- 
ed by  the  weight  of  a  foreign  yoke,  and  the  standard  of  her 
glory  trampled  in  the  dust.  In  no  state  of  Greece  was  elo- 
quence cultivated  with  the  same  assiduity  and  success  as  at 
Athens,  and  it  was  considered  of  so  much  importance,  that  there 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^5 

arose  a  set  of  men  called  rhetoricians,  who  professed  to  explain 
the  principles  of  the  art,  and  teach  a  man  to  be  an  orator  hy 
rule.  The  influence  of  eloquence  is  universally  felt  and  ac- 
knowledged; it  may  be  witnessed  in  barbarous  as  well  as  civil- 
ized nations — in  the  rude  assemblies  of  the  Scythians  and  around 
the  council  fire  of  the  American  savage,  as  in  the  congress  of 
the  United  States,  or  the  imperial  parliament.  "The  eminent 
orator,"  says  Tacitus,  uis  the  model  which  every  parent  recom- 
mends to  his  children.  Even  the  common  people  stand  at  a  gaze 
as  he  passes  by ;  they  pronounce  his  name  with  pleasure,  and 
point  at  him  as  the  object  of  their  admiration.  The  provinces 
resound  with  his  praise.  The  strangers,  who  arrive  from  all 
parts,  have  heard  of  his  genius;  they  wish  to  behold  the  man, 
and  their  curiosity  is  never  at  rest,  till  they  have  seen  his  person, 
and  perused  his  countenance."* 

The  origin  of  this  art  may  be  assigned  to  Pitheus,  the  uncle  of 
Theseus,  who  opened  a  school  of  rhetoric  and  oratory,  fifty  years 
before  the  Trojan  war,  or  1 200  years  before  the  Christain  era. 
when  the  warlike  chieftains  of  the  age  were  equally  ambitious 

"To  shine  in  councils  or  in  camps  to  dare." 

From  this  time  we  find  no  orator  worthy  of  mention  until  the 
time  of  Georgias,  a  native  of  Leontium,  in  Sicily,  who  lived  500 
years  before  Christ,  and  was  the  first  who  professed  to  prepare 
his  pupils  for  extemporaneous  declamation.  He  acquired  a 
high  reputation,  and  was  admired  for  his  eloquence,  as  well  in 
Athens,  as  in  his  own  country.  He  is,  however,  represented  by- 
Plato  in  one  of  his  dialogues,  as  possessing  no  fit  talent  for  the 
art  he  professed  to  teach. 

Lysias  was  contemporary  with  Herodotus  and  Thucydides. 
He  was  born  at  Athens,  and  in  his  fifteenth  year  removed  to 
Thurium,  where  he  continued  about  thirty  years.  He  was 
greatly  admired  by  his  contemporaries  for  his  oratory,  and  is 
said  to  have  written  upwards  of  two  hundred  and  forty  orations, 
of  which  only  thirty-four  are  extant.  Cicero  says,  that  his  com- 
positions were  so  pure  and  elegant,  that  you  might  venture  to 
pronounce  him,  a  perfect  orator;  and  Quintillian  says  of  him, 
that  he  is  acute  and  elegant,  and  if  to  teach  the  art  of  spenking 
weie  the  only  business  of  an  orator,  nothing  more  perfect  can 

•*  Tacitus;  Pia  on  Oratory,  ch.  8 


i  26  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

be  found.  He  has  no  redundancy,  nothing  superfluous,  nothing, 
too  refined,  or  foreign  to  his  purpose:  his  style  is  flowing,  but 
more  like  a  pure  fountain,  than  a  noble  river.  He  died  in  the 
81st  year  of  his  age. 

Isocrates  flourished  about  400  years  before  Christ,  and  although 
called  an  orator,  his  talents  as  a  public  speaker  were  never  dis- 
played, with  any  striking  effect,  in  the  assemblies  of  the  people. 
His  failure  as  a  speaker  before  a  public  assembly,  was  occasion- 
ed by  his  diffidence,  which  he  found  it  impossible  to  overcome. 
He  may,  therefore,  with  more  propriety  be  considered  as  a  teach- 
er of  eloquence,  and  a  writer  of  orations  delivered  by  others. 
Not  more  than  thirty  of  his  orations  are  extant.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark,  and  much  to  the  honor  of  Isocrates,  that  on  the  death 
of  Socrates,  he  alone  of  all  his  disciples,  had  the  courage  to  ap- 
pear in  the  streets  of  Athens  in  a  mourning  garb.  The  orations 
of  Lycias  and  Isocrates  have  been  clothed  in  an  English  dress 
by  Dr.  Gillies,  the  elegant  historian  of  Greece,  accompanied  by 
an  historical  preface,  reflecting  much  light  upon  the  state  of 
oratory  at  that  period.  The  style  of  the  oratory  of  Isocrates  ie 
admitted  to  be  much  inferior  to  that  of  jEschines,  and  far  below 
Demosthenes.  Lysias  and  Isocrates,  says  Hume,  when  compared 
with  Demosthenes  and  Cicero,  were  eclipsed  like  a  taper  when 
set  in  the  rays  of  a  meridian  sun. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  that  period  of  Grecian  history,  wlien 
oratory  attained  its  utmost  height,  and  when  the  public  assem- 
blies resounded  with  the  eloquence  of  the  rival  orators,  JEschines 
and  Demosthenes.  ^Eschines  was  some  years  older  than  Demos- 
thenes. At  twenty  years  of  age,  lie  entered  the  Athenian  army, 
and  distinguished  himself  for  courage  and  conduct  in  several 
engagements,  particularly  in  that  of  Mantinen.  When  peace 
was  restored,  he  became  a  clerk  to  the  council  of  five  hundred, 
and  was  at  one  time  an  actor,  and  although  remarkable  for  a  fine 
voice  and  other  qualifications  for  the  profession,  he  quitted  the 
stage  for  the  rostrum;  to  qualify  himself  for  his  new  course  of 
life,  he  attended  the  school  of  Plato.  He  was  the  rival  of  De- 
mosthenes, and  the  most  powerful  one  he  ever  encountered  inv> 
the  field  of  eloquence.  From  honorable  rivals  for  public  favor. 
they  became  avowed  enemies,  and  in  their  orations  bitterly  as- 
sailed and  denounced  each  other.  This  enmity  commenced 
when  they  were  associated  together,  in  an  embassy  from  the 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  127 

government  of  Athens  to  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  on  which  oc- 
casion .Eschines  permitted  his  avarice  to  get  the  better  of  his 
patriotism,  and  is  said  to  have  tarnished  his  reputation  by  the 
acceptance  of  a  bribe  from  Philip.  When  the  Athenians  were 
about  to  bestow  upon  Demosthenes  a  golden  crown,  as  a  reward 
for  his  patriotic  exertions  in  the  cause  of  Grecian  liberty,  it  was 
warmly  opposed  by  ^Eschines,  who  was,  no  doubt,  stimulated  to 
the  opposition  by  jealousy  of  the  superior  fame  of  his  rival.  In 
consequence  of  this  he  was  banished  to  Rhodes,  where  he  opened 
a  school  for  teaching  oratory.  Only  three  of  his  orations  are 
extant. 

Demosthenes  was  born  about  three  hundred  and  eighty  years 
before  Christ.  His  father  was  a  sword  cutler,  and  had  amassed 
considerable  wealth,  which  enabled  him  to  give  his  son  all  the 
advantages  of  education.  He  gave  early  indications  of  those 
great  talents  which  were  afterwards  so  preeminently  displayed 
in  the  public  assemblies  of  Athens,  in  asserting  the  rights,  and 
supporting  the  liberties  of  Greece,  and  encouraging  his  coun- 
trymen to  repel  the  invasions  of  Philip.  To  gain  the  eminence 
which  he  attained  as  an  orator,  Demosthenes  had  to  encounter 
andf  overcome  many  difficulties,  particularly  that  of  defective 
utterance,  or  stammering,  which  he  is  said  to  have  conquered  by 
speaking  with  pebbles  in  his  mouth.  The  character  of  Demos- 
thenes, when  divested  of  the  glare  cast  around  it  by  the  splen- 
dor of  his  eloquence,  does  not  appear  to  be  entitled  to  very  high 
commendation ;  he  is  represented  as  an  unpleasant  companion, 
a  faithless  friend,  a  contemptible  soldier,  (a  rare  character  in 
those  times,)  and  mean  and  sordid  in  his  disposition,  often  receiv- 
ing money  as  a  compensation  for  insult,  and  for  blows  inflicted 
upon  him.  As  an  orator,  however,  he  stands  preeminent;  his 
orations  which  have  been  preserved,  are  considered  as  models 
of  eloquence,  and  all  unite  in  yielding  to  him  the  title  of  "Prince 
of  Orators,"  a  title,  which  it  would  be  considered  literary  infi- 
delity to  dispute.  Fenclon,  archbishop  of  Cambray,  in  his 
"Dialogues  concerning  eloquence,"  expresses  himself  in  the  fol- 
lowing language,  with  respect  to  Demosthenes:  "Every  oration 
oi  Demosthenes  is  a  close  chain  of  reasoning,  that  represents  the 
generous  notions  of  a  soul  who  disdains  any  thought  that  is  not 
great.  His  discourses  gradually  increase  in  force  by  greater 
Jight  and  new  reasons,  which  are  always  illustrated  by  bold 


}  28  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

figures  and  lively  images.  One  cannot  but  see  that  he  has  the 
good  of  the  republic  entirely  at  heart,  and  that  nature  itself 
speaks  in  all  his  transports;  for  his  artlful  address  is  so  masterly 
that  it  never  appears.  Nothing  ever  equalled  the  force  and 
vehemence  of  his  discourses."  In  another  place*  the  same  elo- 
quent writer  remarks,  that  Demosthenes  "is  above  admiration. 
He  uses  speech,  as  a  modest  man  does  his  clothes,  only  to  cover 
himself.  He  thunders;  he  lightens;  he  is  like  a  torrent  that 
hurries  every  thing  along  with  it.  We  cannot  criticise  him,  for 
he  is  master  of  our  passions.  We  consider  the  things  he  says, 
not  his  own  words.  We  lose  sight  of  him:  we  think  of  Philip 
alone  who  usurps  every  thing.  Tully's  prodigious  art  and  mag- 
nificent eloquence,  affect  me  less  than  the  vehement  simplicity 
of  Demosthenes."  With  regard  to  the  abilities  of  this  great 
orator,  we  might  present  the  opinions  of  numerous  authors  who 
have  written  on  the  subject  of  oratory;  and  although  some 
decree  the  palm  to  Cicero,  all  unite  in  just  commendation  of 
that  powerful  eloquence,  which  seizes  and  captivates  the  heart.t 

In  addition  to  the  orators  above-mentioned,  we  might  enu- 
merate a  Pericles,  a  Pisistratus  and  others  who  were  distinguish- 
ed for  their  eloquence,  but  being  statesmen  and  not  professed 
orators,  they  do  not  come  within  our  present  plan. 

While  we  look  back  upon  the  illustrious  band  of  poets,  phi- 
losophers, historians  and  orators,  who  contributed  so  much  to 
•elevate  their  country  in  the  scale  of  nations,  we  cannot  but 
mourn  over  the  melancholy  reverse,  which  has  laid  her  prostrate 
in  the  dust.  Instead  of  beholding  in  the  land  of  Themistocles 
a  nation  of  independent  freemen,  we  behold  a  remnant  of  a 
generous  and  high  born  race  compelled  to  bow  before  the  c 
*:ent  of  the  haughty  Turk. 

Yet  to  the  remnants  of  thy  splendor  past 
Shall  pilgrims,  pensive,  but  unwearied,  throng; 
Long  shall  the  voyager,  with  the  Ionian  blast, 
Hail  the  bright  clime  of  battle  and  of  song; 
Long  shall  thine  annals  and  immortal  tongue 
Fill  with  thy  fame  the  youth  of  many  a  shore; 
Boast  of  the  aged  !  lesson  of  the  young! 
Which  sages  venerate  and  bards  adore, 
As  Pallas  and  the  Muse  unveil  their  awful  lore. 

Childe  Har.  Can.  11.  XCI. 
•   Letter  to  the  French  Academy. 

f  See  Fenelon's  dialogues  concerning  eloquence;  the  Abbe  M^ury's  principles  oi 
eloquence;  Blair's  lectures;  Longinus  on  the  sublime;  Rullin's  belles  lettn-s:  Knox 
essays;  Adam's  lectures;  Hume's  essays ;  Anarcharsis1  travels ;  Cic.de Ora.;  Quin.Ine- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE,  1 39 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Of  the  literature  of  the  Romans.  Dramatic  poets :  Andronicus^  En- 
niiis,  Accius,  JVmws,  Pacuvius,  Pldulus,  Cecilius,  Terence. 

OUR  brief  sketch  of  the  literary  history  of  ancient  Greece 
having  been  brought  to  a  close,  we  now  proceed,  according  to 
our  plan,  with  a  sketch  of  that  of  Rome. 

The  early  history  of  Rome,  like  that  of  other  ancient  nations, 
is  involved  in  fable.  Those  who  have  investigated  this  subject 
with  most  care,  have  been  disappointed  in  their  anticipated  re- 
sults. With  all  their  skill  and  industry,  they  have  been  unable 
to  remove  the  veil  that  conceals  the  actual  circumstances  attend- 
ing the  foundation  of  that  mighty  city,  which,  in  a  few  centu- 
ries, spread  her  victorious  eagles  over  the  most  distant  lands? 
and,  from  the  most  obscure  and  humble  beginnings,  became  the 
mistress  of  the  world.  But  where  is  she  now?  Where  sits  the 
"Queen  of  cities,"  that  encircled  with  her  protecting  walls  an 
immense  population?  Where  her  glorious  heroes  and  her  migh- 
ty legions?  Where  the  monuments  of  her  ancient  glory,  her 
triumphal  arches  and  her  columns?  Alas!  we  look  in  vain. 
Nations,  like  individuals,  have  their  times  of  prosperity  and  their 
seasons  of  adversity.  A  mitred  bishop,  with  his  pastoral  staff, 
now  holds  sway  where  a  Cincinnatus  triumphed  and  an  Augus- 
tus ruled ;  an  assembly  of  cardinals  occupies  the  place  of  the 
conscript  fathers;  her  mighty  legions,  in  whose  train  victory 
followed,  have  dwindled  into  a  lawless  rabble  and  banditti;  her 
consuls  into  priests  and  monks.  The  monuments  of  her  ancient 
glory  have  been  destroyed  by  the  ravages  of  time,  or  defaced 
and  mutilated  by  the  ruthless  hand  of  Gothic  violence;  the 
tombs  of  her  heroes  have  been  violated,  and  their  sacred  ashes 
disturbed  to  gratify  the  curiosity  of  the  idle,  or  the  whim  of  the 
antiquary. 

Oh  Rome!  my  country !  city  of  the  soul ! 
The  orphans  of  the  heart  must  turn  to  thee, 
Lone  mother  of  dead  empires! -and  control 
In  their  shut  breasts  their  petty  misery. 
What  are  our  woesome!  sufferance  ?  Come  and  see 
The  cypress,  hear  the  owl,  and  plod  your  way 
17 


]  30  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

O'r  steps  of  broken  thrones  and  temples.    Ye!  ; 

Whose  agonies  are  evils  of  a  day — 

A  world  is  at  our  feet,  as  fragile  as  our  clay. 

The  JViobe  of  nations !  there  she  stands 
Childless  and  crovvnless.in  her  voiceless  wo; 
An  empty  urn  within  her  wither'd  hands, 
Whose  holy  dust  was  scatter'd  long  ago ; 
The  Scipios'  tomb  contains  no  ashes  now; 
The  very  sepulchres  lie  tenantless 

Of  their  heroic  dwellers. 

ChildeHar.C.ir.18. 

4 

According  to  the  generally  received  opinion,  Rome  was  found 
ett  753  years  before  the  Christian  era,  by  Romulus  and  Rcmuv* 
twin  brothers,  and  sons  of  Rhea  Sylvia,  daughter  of  Numitor, 
who  was  driven  from  the  throne  of  Alba  by  Amulius,  his  younger 
brother.  Scarcely  were  the  lines  of  the  new  city  marked  out. 
when  it  was  proclaimed  an  asylum  for  fugitives — "a  city  of 
refuge"  for  the  oppressed  of  all  nations,  as  well  as  for  those 
whose  crimes  had  driven  them  from  the  neighboring  towns  and 
cities.  All  who  came  were  received  with  open  arms,  without 
any  inquiry  into  their  characters.  On  the  death  of  Remus, 
which  happened  soon  after  the  foundation  of  the  city,  Romulus 
assumed  and  exercised  the  sovereign  power,  and  by  his  wisdom 
and  policy,  established  discipline  and  subordination  among  a 
band  of  needy  and  rapacious  adventurers,  and  his  city  soon  oc- 
cupied a  conspicuous  rank  amidst  surrounding  nations. 

Romulus  being  illiterate  himself,  and,  therefore,  ignorant  ot 
its  advantages,  the  encouragement  of  learning  and  tiie  diffusion 
of  general  knowledge  formed  no  part  of  his  political  system. 
His  great  object  was,  to  establish  a  firm  and  efficient  govern- 
ment, capable  of  resisting  all  encroachments  upon  his  growing 
power,  by  his  warlike  neighbors;  to  infuse  into  his  subjects  thai 
military  spirit  which  was  absolutely  necessary  for  the  protection 
of  his  infant  kingdom  against  their  hostile  attacks.  No  other 
consideration  was  permitted  to  interfere  with  that  military  dis- 
cipline, that  contempt  of  danger  and  death,  so  carefully  incul- 
cated by  him,  which  made  every  man  a  soldier,  and  which  was 
so  conspicuously  displayed  in  after  times,  when  a  Roman  legion 
would  have  stood  against  the  world. 

This  almost  exclusive  attachment  to  war  and  all  its  "pomp  and 
« ircumstance,7'  continued  for  near  six  hundred  years  from  the 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


131 


foundation  of  the  city,  during  which  time  literature  made  but 
little  progress — at  least  none  worthy  of  notice.  Numa,  the  im- 
mediate successor  of  Romulus,  has  been  called  a  philosopher, 
and  "possessed  a  mind,"  says  Livy,  "deeply  tinctured  with  virtue 
and  well  furnished  with  good  principles;"  and  he  endeavored, 
by  the  introduction  of  wholesome  laws,  to  soften  the  manners 
and  tame  the  turbulent  temper  of  the  people,  and  infuse  into 
them  somewhat  of  his  more  gentle  and  philosophic  spirit.  But 
whatever  portion  of  general  literature  he  possessed,  or  whatever 
may  have  been  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  his  philosophy,  he  kept 
locked  within  himself,  or  communicated  only  to  his  secluded  as- 
sociate, the  nymph  Egeria;  for  even  the  books  he  had  writ- 
ten he  ordered  to  be  buried  with  his  body.  During  the  long 
period  abovementioned,  literature  had  made  so  little  progress, 
that  when  the  Roman  ambassadors  returned  from  Athens  with  a 
copy  of  the  laws  of  Solon,  and  the  Decemviri  were  about  to 
compile  the  ten  tables,  they  were  obliged  to  procure  the  assist- 
ance of  Hermodorus  of  Ephesus,  a  pupil  of  Plato,  to  serve  them 
as  an  interpreter. 

As  in  all  rude  nations,  poetry  appears  to  have  been  first  culti- 
vated among  the  Romans,  and  was  employed  in  celebrating  the 
praise  of  their  gods  and  their  deified  heroes.  About  400  years 
after  the  building  of  the  city,  poetry  was  employed  in  a  species 
of  dramatic  entertainment,  borrowed  from  the  Tuscans,  called 
the  Fescennine  verses,  from  Fescennia,  a  town  in  Tuscany,  where 
that  species  of  entertainment  was  first  practised.  This  enter- 
tainment was  introduced  by  the  Romans  at  many  of  their  festiv- 
als, particularly  at  harvest  home,  when  they  rallied  each  other 
i-n  rude  and  unpolished  verse. 

Our  ancient  swains,  of  hardy  vigorous  kind , 
At  harvest-home,  used  to  unbend  the  mind 

With  festal  sports. 

Here,  in  alternate  verse,  with  rustic  jest 
The  clowns  their  awkward  raillery  express'd. 

A  custom  similar  to  this  was  retained  in  their  Saturnalia,  or 
feast  of  Saturn.  This  entertainment  was  gradually  improved 
into  what  was  called  Satyrce,  or  Satires,  which  were  accompanied 
with  music  and  dancing.  The  Salym  are  said  to  have  possessed 
f.very  thing:  that  was  agrfpnble  and  amusing  in  the  Fescennine 


132  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

Verses  without  their  vulgarity,  and  were  intended  to  ridicule 
and  expose  vice ;  hence  those  poems,  afterwards  written  for 
a  similar  purpose,  were  called  satires. 

Livius  Andronicus,  a  freed  man  of  Rome,  was  the  first  who 
ventured  to  write  a  regular  play,  about  241  years  before  Christ, 
As  was  the  custom  in  those  days,  he  acted  a  part  in  his  own 
compositions,  although  the  Roman  law  declared  the  profession 
of  an  actor  to  be  infamous,  and  deprived  those  who  exercis- 
ed it,  of  the  rights  of  citizens.  In  the  representations  of  his 
pieces,  he  was  usually  assisted  by  a  boy,  who  sang  to  the  music 
of  the  flute.  Thus  we  find,  that  nearly  three  hundred  years 
after  the  drama  had  attained  its  utmost  height  in  Greece,  under 
its  great  masters  JSschylus,  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  it  was  yet 
in  its  infancy  in  Rome.  The  Roman  people,  however,  were  so 
highly  pleased  with  the  improvements  introduced  by  Androni- 
cus,  that  they  abandoned,  fora  time,  their  old  entertainments  of 
satires,  but  subsequently  caused  them  to  be  represented  after 
their  comedies  or  tragedies,  in  the  same  manner  as  farces  are 
exhibited  in  modern  times. 

After  Andronicus,  appeared  the  comic  poet  Ennius.  He  was 
born  at  Rudii,  in  Calabria,  about  230  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era,  but  was  admitted  to  all  the  privileges  of  a  Roman  citi- 
zen. Blessed  with  a  fertile  genius  and  poetic  fancy,  and  pos- 
sessing also,  a  taste  for  the  drama,  he  contributed  much  to  its 
refinement  and  improvement,  by  following  in  the  steps  and 
adopting  the  manner  of  the  great  dramatic  writers  of  Greece. 
Although  his  style  is,  in  general,  rough  and  unpolished,  Virgil 
did  not  scruple  to  transfer  many  of  his  lines  and  incorporate 
them  with  his  own  works,  after  having  polished  them,  as  the 
lapidary  does  the  diamond.  Ennius,  although  distinguished  in 
the  history  of  Roman  literature,  as  a  dramatic  writer,  did  not 
confine  himself  solely  to  dramatic  poetry,  but  wrote  also  a  kind 
of  history  of  the  Roman  Republic,  in  heroic  verse,  and  hence 
was  called,  as  appears  from  Horace's  epistle  to  Augustus,  a  "se- 
cond Homer." 


Ennius  et  sapiens,  et  fortis,  et  alter  Homerus 
Utcritici  dicunt. 


Ennius,  the  brave,  the  lofty  and  the  wise, 
\nother  Homer  in  the  critic's  eyes. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  133 

None  of  the  works  of  this  writer,  now  extant,  are  com- 
plete; a  few  fragments  scattered  through  the  works  of  other 
ancient  authors,  have  been  collected  and  published  in  a  separate 
volume.  Ennius  appears  to  have  been  intimate  with  some  of 
the  most  distinguished  men  of  his  age,  among  others  Cato  and 
Scipio.  He  died  in  the  70th  year  of  his  age,  169  years  before 
the  Christian  era. 

About  the  time  of  Ennius,  and  a  few  years  subsequent,  Rome 
could  boast  of  the  tragic  poet  Accius^  and  the  comic  poets  JVe- 
vius,  Pacumus  and  Plautus,  who  at  that  early  period  of  her  lite- 
rary history,  shone  as  "burning  lights,"  but  whose  splendor  was 
subsequently  eclipsed  by  the  brighler  glories  of  a  Terence,  a 
Horace  and  a  Virgil.  Notwithstanding  they  are  thus  cast  into 
shade,  and  their  fame  overshadowed  by  the  reputation  of  menmore 
highly  gifted  in  intellectual  powers,  who  enjoyed  all  the  advan- 
tages to  be  derived  from  a  superior  state  of  refinement  and 
greater  advances  in  knowledge,  still  their  names  are  worthy  of 
commemoration,  as  the  fathers  of  Roman  poetry,  and  particu- 
larly of  that  called  dramatic. 

Accius  was  the  first  who  introduced  the  tragic  muse  to  a  Ro- 
man audience.  Although  much  refined  and  improved  by  Ennius, 
the  majesty  of  the  drama  was  still  unknown.  The  loftier  pas- 
sions and  prouder  feelings  of  our  nature,  which  give  force,  dig- 
nity and  elevation  to  man,  were  never  represented;  comedy  and 
farce  occupied  the  stage  and  attracted  public  attention;  men 
were  content  to  witness  the  representation,  and  laugh  at  the  fol- 
lies and  vices  of  the  times.  Accius,  impressed  with  the  idea 
that  the  stage  might  be  converted  into  a  source  of  more  refined 
and  rational  amusement,  and  desirous  of  adding  to  the  dignity 
of  the  drama,  turned  his  attention  to  tragedy,  and  not  only  trans- 
lated some  of  the  most  celebrated  tragedies  of  Sophocles,  but 
composed  several  himself.  None  of  his  plays  have  come  down 
to  us  entire,  but  some  fragments  have  been  preserved  in  the 
works  of  Cicero.  The  rhetorician  and  critic  Quintillian,  speaks 
of  his  style  as  being  rather  rough,  uncourtly  and  unpolished, 
which  he  attributes  rather  to  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  than  to 
any  want  of  ability  to  decorate  it  with  the  choicest  flowers.  Ac- 
eius  was  held  in  great  honor  by  the  Roman  people,  on  account 
of  the  opinion  they  entertained  of  his  merit  as  a  poet. 
died  about  180  years  before  Christ. 


134 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 


Nevius,  besides  various  comedies  and  other  dramatic 
wrote  a  poetical  account  of  the  first  Punic  war,  in  which  he  was 
personally  engaged.  His  dramatic  writings  were  calcula- 
ted to  please  the  people,  but  the  satirical  vein  which  ran 
through  them,  and  in  which  he  was  fond  of  indulging,  gave  such 
offence  to  the  consul  Metellus,  as  to  cause  his  banishment  from 
Rome.  He  passed  the  remainder  of  his  days  at  Utica,  where 
he  died  about  203  years  before  Christ.  None  of  his  comedies, 
nor  his  poem  on  the  Punic  war,  are  extant;  all  we  possess  of  his 
writings,  consists  of  a  fewr  fragments,  from  which  but  a  very 
imperfect  opinion  can  be  formed  of  his  real  merit  as  a  poet  or  a 
dramatist. 

PacuTius  was  the  son  of  a  sister  of  Ennius,  and  was  born  at 
Brundusium,  a  city  of  Calabria.  He  united  the  kindred  arts  of 
painting  and  poetry;  he  is,  however,  more  indebted  for  his  re- 
putation, to  his  talents  as  a  poet,  than  his  skill  as  a  painter.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  dramatic  pieces,  consisting  of  tragedies, 
comedies  and  satires,  which  were  represented  with  much  eclat 
on  the  Roman  stage.  He  possessed  a  genius  that  elicited  the 
praise  of  some  of  the  Roman  critics  in  the  Augustan  age  of  criti- 
cal refinement,  although  his  verse  partook  of  the  rough  and  un- 
polished character  of  the  times  in  which  he  lived.  Horace,  in 
his  epistle  to  Augustus,  in  which  he  brings  to  view  nearly  all  the 
old  Roman  poets,  speaks  of  him  as  deserving  the  character  of 
"learned."  Only  a  few  fragments  of  his  works  remain.  He 
died  at  Tarentum  in  the  90th  year  of  his  age. 

Plautus  deservedly  acquired  a  much  higher  reputation  than 
any  of  his  predecessors,  or  contemporaries.  He  was  born  at 
Sarsina,  in  Umbria,  a  country  of  Italy,  but  early  fixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Rome,  where  he  soon  attracted  public  attention.  Ha- 
ving a  talent  for  poetry,  the  cultivation  of  it  became  the  object 
of  his  ambition,  and  as  the  stage  was  then  the  field  from  which 
the  richest  harvest  was  to  be  reaped,  he  became  a  dramatic  poet. 
In  his  dramatic  compositions,  he  selected  for  his  model  the  co- 
medies of  Epicharmus,  of  Syracuse,  who  has  already  been  men- 
tioned as  the  inventor  of  comedy,  making,  however,  such  alte- 
rations in  the  plan  and  arrangement,  as  were  suited  to  the  Roman 
stage,  and  selecting  for  his  subjects  such  peculiarities  in  Roman 
manners,  as  he  believed  ought  to  be  lashed  with  the  whip  of  sa- 
lire.  and  could  be  introduced  with  the  greatest  advantage.  Al 

fi&  jr  I 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^5 

though  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  among  his  contemporaries, 
and  his  writings  were  admired  for  purity,  eloquence  and  energy, 
even  in  the  days  of  Augustus,  he  has  not  been  quite  so  fortunate 
in  modern  times — modern  critics  are  unwilling  to  assign  him  so 
conspicuous  a  niche  in  the  temple  of  fame.  The  modern  writer 
most  severe  upon  Plautus,  is  Laharpe,  whose  opinions  as  a  correct 
and  judicious  critic,  are  entitled  to  much  consideration.  He 
censures  his  comedies  as  being  defective  in  their  plots,  the  same 
characters  continually  recurring  with  but  slight  variation;  dis- 
gusting in  style  and  dialogue,  and  mingling  with  his  wit  and  hu- 
mor too  much  low  buffoonery.  At  the  same  time,  however,  that 
he  pronounces  this  severe  judgment,  he  admits  that  he  posses- 
sed a  strong  mind  and  a  fertile  genius.  As  an  apology  for  the 
style,  manner  and  language  of  Plautus,  which  have  been  so  se- 
verely reprehended,  it  ought  to  be  remembered,  that  the  Ro- 
mans were  then  just  emerging  from  a  rough  and  unpolished 
state,  and  only  beginning  to  assume  a  politeness  of  manner,  and 
it  would  have  been  impolitic  and  unwise  to  have  attempted  a 
complete  and  thorough  reformation,  in  a  species  of  amusement 
to  which  they  were  much  attached.  Improvements  in  public 
taste,  as  in  every  thing  else,  are  not  the  work  of  a  moment;  they 
must  be  introduced  by  degrees,  and  they  gradually  take  effect; 
thus  Plautus  introduced  such  improvements  in  dramatic  poetry, 
as  were  enlarged  and  extended  by  the  superior  genius  of  Te- 
rence and  other  succeeding  poets.  Plautus  was  the  author  ol 
twenty-five  comedies,  twenty  of  which,  either  in  whole,  or  in 
part,  are  extant. 

QcBcilius  was  a  native  of  Gaul ;  he  removed  to  Rome,  where 
he  fixed  his  residence,  as  the  capital  of  the  empire  afforded  a 
better  field  for  the  display  of  his  peculiar  genius,  than  the  wild 
regions  of  his  native  land.  He  commenced  his  career  as  a  can- 
didate for  public  favor,  by  writing  for  the  stage.  He  produced 
many  comedies  and  other  dramatic  pieces,  none  of  which  have- 
escaped  the  fate  that  attended  the  works  of  his  contemporaries. 
His  style  and  manner  are  highly  commended  by  Quintillian  and 
Cicero,  whose  taste  and  judgment,  in  all  things  relating  to  Ro- 
man literature,  cannot  be  doubted.  The  Roman  people  had 
such  confidence  in  the  judgment  of  Ccecilius,  that  when  Terence 
offered  his  first  play  to  the  Ediles.  thry  referred  him  to  Ociliu* 
to  decide  upon  its  merit-. 


HISTOR1  OK  LITERATURE 


Terence  was  by  birth  an  African — a  native  of  Carthage.  He 
was  sold  as  a  slave  to  a  Roman  senator,  who  observing  in  him  a 
brilliant  and  aspiring  genius,  educated  him  with  great  care,  and 
afterwards  liberated  him.  Having  a  taste  for  dramatic  poetry, 
he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Greek  dramatic  writers, 
and  not  only  chose  Menander  as  his  model,  but  translated,  it  is 
said,  no  less  than  one  hundred  of  his  comedies,  from  which  cir- 
cumstance, some  of  his  contemporaries,  who  were  envious  of  his 
rising  fame,  accused  him  of  plagiarism — a  charge  often  made  by 
those  who  "hate  that  excellence  they  cannot  reach."  In  dra- 
matic composition,  he  could  not  have  selected  a  better  model  for 
imitation  than  Menander,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  was  styled  the 
"Prince  of  the  new  comedy,"  as  a  just  tribute  to  his  superior 
merits,  and  if  he  had  done  no  more  to  deserve  their  approbation, 
the  Roman  people  were  greatly  indebted  to  him  for  introducing 
to  their  acquaintance  the  works  of  this  distinguished  poet. 
When  Terence  offered  the  "Andrian,"  the  first  production  of  his 
muse,  to  the  Ediles  for  representation,  they  directed  him  to  sub- 
mit it  to  the  judgment  of  Cascilius,  and  when,  with  all  the  trepi- 
dation of  a  young  author,  Terence  presented  himself  before  the 
old  poet,  he  found  him  seated  at  table ;  Caecilius  placed  him  on  a 
low  seat  near  him,  and  Terence  began  to  read.  He  had  scarcely 
finished  the  first  scene,  when  Cascilius  invited  him  to  sup  with 
him,  and  after  the  repast,  having  finished  the  piece,  he  highly 
praised  the  performance,  and  recommended  it  to  the  Ediles. 
This  recommendation  was  the  more  flattering,  and  is  the  morr 
remakablc,  as  authors,  particularly  poets,  arc  not  much  in  the 
habit  of  bestowing  praises  upon  those  who  may  be  considered 
rivals.  Quintillian  entertained  a  much  higher  opinion  of  the 
talents  of  Terence,  and  his  skill  in  dramatic  composition,  than 
any  of  his  predecessors,  and  pronounced  his  comedies  the  most 
refined  and  elegant  which  had  appeared  upon  the  Roman  stage. 
An  English  author,  speaking  of  the  works  of  the  "elegant  disci- 
ple of  Menander,"  as  he  called  Terence,  remarks,  that  "delicacy 
and  sweetness  are  the  characteristics  of  Terence.  His  poetic 
images  are  all  represented  in  the  most  clear  and  conspicuous  ex- 
pression; but  his  characters  are  too  general  and  uniform,  nor 
are  they  marked  with  those  discriminating  peculiarities  that 
distinguish  one  man  from  another,  and  his  plots  are  too  compli- 
cated and  intricate." 

. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE,  137 

Horace  in  his  epistle  to  Augustus,  speaks  of  the  dramatic 
poets  we  have  mentioned  in  the  following  language: 

Enniuset  sapiens,  et  fortis.et  alter  Homerus 
Ut  critic!  dicunt,  leviter  curare  videtur 
Quo  promissa  cadant,  et  somnia  Pythagorea. 
JNaeviusm  manibus  non  est,  at  mentibus  haeret 
Pene  recens;  adeo  sanctum  est  vetus  ornnepoema, 
Ambigitur  quoties,  uter  utro  sit  prior;  aufert 
Pacuvius  docti  faraam  senis,  Accius  alti ; 
Dicitur  Afrani  togaconvenisseMenandro; 
Plautus  ad  exemplar  Siculi  properare  Epicharmi; 
Vincere  Cascilius  gravitate,  Terentius  arte. 

Hor.L.^Ep.l 

r 

Ennius  the  brave,  the  lofty  and  the  wise, 
Another  Homer  in  the  critic's  eyes, 
Forgets  his  promise,  now  secure  of  fame, 
And  heeds  no  more  his  Pythagorean  dream. 
]Vo  longer  Nevius  or  his  plays  remain; 

fl 


Yet  we  remember  ever  pleasing  scene; 


So  much  can  time  its  awful  sanction  give 
In  sacred  fame  to  bid  a  poem  live. 
Whate'er  disputes  of  ancient  poets  rise, 
In  some  one  excellence  their  merit  lies: 
What  depth  of  learning  old  Pacuvius  shows  1 
With  strong  sublime  the  page  of  Accius  glows, 
Menander's  comic  robe  Afanius  wears; 
Plautus  as  rapid  in  his  plots  appears 
AsEpicharmus;  Terence  charms  with  art, 
And  grave  Caecilius  sinks  into  the  heart. 

Francis. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Literature  of  the  Romans :  Lucretius,  Terrentius  Varo.  Reign  of 
Augustus;  Virgil,  Ovid,  Tibullus,  Propertius,  Catullus,  Horace, 
Lucan,  Persius,  Juvenal,  Martial,  Phcedrus. 

DIDACTIC  poetry,  or  that  more  elevated  species  of  poetic 
composition,  the  direct  object  of  which  is,  to  convey  instruction 
on  religious,  moral  or  philosophical  subjects,  was  almost,  if  not 
altogether,  unknown,  until  the  time  of  Lucretius,  who  was  con- 
temporary with  Cicero.  Before  this  period,  dramatic  poetry 
was  the  only  species  cultivated  to  any  extent,  which  was  calcu- 
lated to  excite  attention,  and  reward  the  poet,  or  advance  his 

18 


j  38  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

literary  fame.  About  this  time,  however,  a  visible  and  impor- 
tant change  took  place,  not  only  in  the  manners  and  customs  of 
the  Roman  people,  but  in  their  modes  of  thinking  on  subjects 
connected  with  literature.  The  stern  maxims  of  Cato  the  cen- 
sor, although  supported  by  a  few  of  his  school,  were  fast  yield- 
ing to  more  liberal  and  elevated  ideas,  and  Rome  began  to  esti- 
mate the  value  and  feel  the  influence  of  literary  attainments. 
The  conquest  of  Greece  had  introduced  among  them  the  elo- 
gant  literature  of  that  celebrated  land : 

When  conquer'cl  Greece  brought  in  her  captive  arts, 
She  triumph'd  o'er  her  savage  conquerors'  hearts; 
Taught  our  rough  verse  its  numbers  to  refine, 
And  our  rough  style  with  elegance  to  shine. 

Francis'  Hor. 

The  works  of  Socrates,  of  Plato,  of  Aristotle,  of  Homer  and 
others,  were  becoming  familiar  to  the  Roman  youth,  and  exci- 
ting that  spirit  of  inquiry  and  emulation,  which  burst  forth  in 
full  splendor,  under  the  munificent  patronage  of  Augustus  and 
Maecenas. 

Lucretius,  a  celebrated  poet  and  philosopher,  was  descended 
from  an  illustrious  family,  and  was  born  about  100  years  before- 
Christ.  He  received  the  rudiments  of  his  education  at  Rome* 
but  was  sent  to  Athens  for  instruction  in  philosophy  and  the  dif- 
ferent branches  of  science.  At  Athens  he  embraced  the  philo- 
sophical doctrines  of  the  Epicurean  sect,  of  which  he  became  a 
zealous  and  able  advocate.  Much  of  our  knowledge  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Epicurus,  is  derived  from  his  poem  "On  the  nature  ol 
things,''  in  which  he  has  set  forth  and  explained,  the  peculiar 
tenets  of  the  sect,  in  a  style  of  much  sweetness  and  harmony  of 
versification.  This  celebrated  poem,  which  has  given  deserved 
immortality  to  the  name  of  Lucretius,  was  principally  written  in 
the  retirement  of  his  villa,  whither  he  had  withdrawn,  as  well  to 
avoid  engaging  in  the  political  divisions  that  distracted  the  em- 
pire, as  to  pursue  at  leisure  his  philosophical  studies.  An  admi- 
rable translation  of  this  poem  has  been  presented  to  the  public 
by  Dr.  Good,  well  known  for  his  medical  and  other  writings,  in 
which  he  has  not  only  carefully  preserved  the  true  meaning  of 
his  author,  but  has  presented  him  to  his  English  readers,  in  a 
.4.yle  of  versification  that  cannot  fail  to  attract. 

In  this  poem  are  displayed  a  bold  and  towering  genius,  and  a 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


mind  capable  of  grasping  the  most  abstruse  and  difficult  subjects. 
In  common  with  his  master,  he  considered  the  soul  a  subtle  cor- 
poreal substance,  and  consequently,  not  immortal,  but  subject  to 
decay,  and  that  man  is  the  "blind  idolater  of  chance,"  destined  to 


" wander  through  eternity; 

To  perish  rather,  swallow'd  up  and  lost 
In  the  wide  womb  of  uncreated  night, 
Devoid  of  sense  and  motion." 

These  doctrines  are  repugnant  to  our  ideas  of  the  wisdom 
and  justice  of  the  Creator,  but  we  should  remember  that,  before 
the  "sun  of  righteousness"  enlightened  the  world,  and  brought 
salvation  on  his  "healing  wings,"  the  greatest  and  most 
learned  of  the  ancient  philosophers  had  very  imperfect  ideas  of 
the  Supreme  Being,  or  a  future  state  of  existence — the  light  of 
reason  and  philosophy,  as  then  taught,  afforded  but  faint  glim- 
merings of  a  blessed  eternity.  It  is  even  wonderful  that  this 
celebrated  poem  is  as  perfect  as  it  is,  and  so  free  from  greater 
absurdities  and  extravagant  fancies,  as  a  great  portion  of  it  is 
said  to  have  been  written  during  the  intervals  of  mental  derange- 
ment, with  which  he  was  afflicted.  Lucretius  put  an  end  to  his 
own  existence,  about  54  years  before  Christ. 

Contemporary  with  Lucretius  was  Terrentius  Varro,  who  was 
both  poet  and  philosopher,  as  well  as  Lucretius,  and  was  distin- 
guished for  his  great  learning.  Varro  wrote  a  great  many  vo- 
lumes, embracing  the  whole  circle  of  learning  then  cultivated, 
namely,  antiquity,  chronology,  geography,  natural  and  civil  his- 
tory, philosophy,  criticism  and  poetry,  in  all  of  which  he  was  dis- 
tinguished. All  that  remain  of  the  works  of  this  voluminous 
writer,  are  a  treatise  "On  Agriculture"  and  a  few  fragments  on 
various  subjects.  Varro  was  the  friend  of  Cicero,  by  whom  he 
was  recommended  to  Brutus  as  questor.  After  the  celebrated 
battle  of  Philippi.  which  proved  so  fatal  to  the  fortunes  of  Brutus, 
Varro  attached  himself  to  Pompey,  and,  in  the  time  of  triumvirate 
he  was  proscribed  with  Cicero,  but  more  fortunate  in  the  sequel 
than  his  illustrious  companion  in  misfortune,  he  escaped  the 
dagger  of  the  assassin.  After  the  restoration  of  tranquillity  and 
the  establishment  of  Augustus  in  the  empire,  he  was  permitted 
to  return  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  the  88th  year  of  his  age. 

About  thirty-one  years  before  the  Christian  era,  the  affairs  of 
the  Romans  took  a  new  turn.  After  a  long  series  of  civil 


^140  HISTORY  Of  LITERATURE. 

proscriptions  and  assassinations,  the  republic,  whose  victorious 
standard  so  long  waved  over  a  prostrate  world,  ceased  to  exist, 
and  on  its'  mighty  ruins  rose  the  feeble  fabric  of  the  Roman 
empire;  the  simple  insignia  of  her  consuls  were  exchanged  for 
the  sceptre  of  royalty,  which,  in  its  turn,  has  been  exchanged  for 
the  crozier.  The  decisive  battles  of  Philippi  and  Actium  had 
put  down  the  rivals  and  opponents  of  Octavius,  and  had  given 
him  the  empire  of  the  world,  with  the  title  of  Augustus,  by  which 
he  has  since  been  known.  Notwithstanding  the  charge,  that 
during  his  connexion  with  Anthony  and  Lepidus,  Augustus  even 
exceeded  his  associates  in  cruelty,  he  was  naturally  inclined  to 
humanity,  and  after  the  establishment  of  his  power,  he  became 
the  patron  of  all  that  was  refined  in  literature  and  elegant  in 
art.  Protected  by  his  power  and  encouraged  by  his  patronage 
and  that  of  Maecenas,  a  numerous  corps  of  candidates  for  fame 
in  the  different  departments  of  literature,  entered  the  lists,  and 
contended  for  the  prize  which  is  so  highly  valued  in  all  civilized 
'nations.  During  his  reign,  learned  men,  and  such  as  were  dis- 
tinguished for  their  skill  and  proficiency  in  the  fine  arts,  enjoyed 
a  consideration  and  influence  never  before  enjoyed  in  Rome. 

Among  the  distinguished  men  of  the  time  of  Augustus,  Virgil 
holds  a  conspicuous  place.  He  was  born  at  Andes,  a  village 
near  Mantua,  about  70  years  before  Christ.  He  was  educated 
at  Cremona,  and  the  first  years  of  his  life  were  spent  there  in 
the  peaceful  occupation  of  agriculture,  and  occasional  devotion 
to  the  muses.  When  Augustus  received  the  Roman  empire,  in 
order  to  reward  his  veteran  troops,  he  distributed  among  them 
the  lands  that  lay  about  Cremona  and  Mantua.  In  this  distribu- 
tion, Virgil  not  only  lost  his  land,  but  narrowly  escaped  losing 
his  life,  in  a  contest  with  a  soldier  with  whom  he  ventured  to 
dispute  the  possession  of  his  "pleasant  fields  and  native  home." 
After  the  loss  of  his  land,  accompanied  by  his  father,  he  repair- 
ed to  Rome,  where  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Augustus,  who  re- 
stored him  his  lost  property.  As  a  tribute  of  gratitude  he  com- 
posed the  first  eclogue,  in  which,  whilst  he  relates  his  own  good 
fortune,  he  feelingly  portrays  the  calamities  and  distresses  of 
his  Mantuan  friends,  and  the  gloomy  prospects  which  lie  before 
them : 

Atnos  hinc  alii  sitientes  ibimus  Afros, 

Pars  Scythiam ,  et  rapidura  Cretaeveniemus  Oaxem. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Et  penitus  toto  divisosorbe  Britannos 
En  unquam  patrios  longo  post  tempore  fines, 
Pauperis  et  tuguri  congestum  cespite  oulmen, 
Post  aliquot,  mea  regna  videns  mirabor  aristas? 
Impius  haec  tarn  culta  novalia  miles  habebit? 

Fir.  £cL  1,65. 


But  we  must  beg  our  bread  in  climes  unknown, 
Between  the  scorching  or  the  freezing  zone, 
And  some  to  far  Oaxis  shall  be  sold  ; 
Or  try  the  Lybian  heat  or  Scythian  cold. 
The  rest  among  the  Britons  be  confined, 
A  race  of  men  from  all  the  world  disjoin'd. 

0  must  the  wretched  exiles  ever  mourn, 
£Jor  after  length  of  rolling  years  return? 
Are  we  condemned  by  fate's  unjust  decree, 
JNo  more  our  houses  nor  our  homes  to  see? 
Or  shall  we  mount  again  the  rural  throne, 
And  rule  the  country  kingdoms  once  our  own? 

Dryden. 

%     I      ^-- 

After  the  eclogues,  he  wrote  the  Georgics,  a  philosophical  and 
practical  poem  on  agricultural  pursuits,  the  first  idea  of  which 
he  received  from  the  "Weeks  and  Days"  of  Hesiod.  This  poem 
he  dedicated  to  his  friend  and  patron  Maecenas. 

Quid  faciat  Isetas  segestes  ;  quo  sidere  terrain 
Vertere,  Maecenas,  ulmisque  adjungere  vites. 
Conveniat;  quaecura  bourn,  qui  cultus  habendo 
Sit  pecori  :  atque  apibus  quanta  experientia  parcis: 
Hinccanere  incipiam.  ---- 

Geo.  Lib.  1—1. 

What  makes  a  plenteous  harvest,  when  to  turn 
The  fruitful  soil,  and  when  to  sow  the  corn; 
The  care  of  sheep,  of  oxen  and  of  kine; 
And  how  to  raise  on  elms  the  teeming  vine; 
Thebirth  and  genius  of  the  frugal  bee, 

1  sing,  Maecenas,  and  I  sing  to  thee. 

Dryden. 

Having  been  himself  a  practical  agriculturalist,  he  gives  di- 
rections with  regard  to  the  different  kinds  of  tillage,  proper  for 
different  soils  —  the  management  of  fruit  trees  —  the  proper  me- 
thod of  cultivating  the  different  kinds  of  vegetable  productions, 
useful  to  man  —  in  short,  he  gives  ample  instructions  in  every 
thing  relating  to  agriculture,  not  in  the  homely  style  of  modern 
writers  on  such  subjects,  but  with  all  the  eloquence  of  the  most 
attractive  versification.  His  last  and  greatest  work,  that  upon 


142  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

which  his  lame,  as  a  poet,  principally  rests,  was  the  sEneid,  upon 
the  composition  of  which  he  employed  eleven  years,  and  unfor- 
tunately died  before  he  applied  to  it  his  last  corrections.  It  is 
not  our  purpose,  nor  does  it  come  within  our  plan,  to  enter  into 
a  minute  analysis,  or  criticism  of  this  celebrated  and  immortal 
poem.  It  is  intended  to  celebrate  the  escape  of  7Eneas  from 
the  destruction  of  Troy,  his  subsequent  settlement  in  Italy 
and  the  foundation  of  a  kingdom  that  was  the  cradle  of  Rome. 
The  adventures  of  jEneas  and  his  companions,  who  had  escaped 
the  Grecian  sword  and  the  flames  of  their  native  city,  and  set 
out  in  search  of  some  retreat  from  their  misfortunes,  are  of 
themselves  calculated  to  enlist  the  feelings  and  excite  atten- 
tion— yet,  as  if  fearful  of  wearying  his  readers  by  a  continued 
recitation  of  hairbreadth  escapes,  and  "moving  accidents  by 
flood  and  field,5'  he  has  ingeniously  contrived  to  introduce  se- 
veral episodes  of  peculiar  interest  and  striking  beauty — such  as 
that  of  Nisus  and  Eurydice,  the  funeral  of  Pallas  and  others — 
these  relieve  the  monotony  of  the  narrative  and  enhance  the 
interest  of  the  poem.  Although  defective  in  many  particulars, 
which,  perhaps  would  have  been  corrected,  had  the  author  lived 
to  have  applied  the  finishing  hand,  it  is  nevertheless,  "distin- 
guished for  its  elegance  and  tenderness,  and  although  it  is  less 
animated  and  less  sublime  than  the  Illiad,it  has  fewer  negligen- 
cies  and  greater  variety,  and  supports  more  of  a  correct  and  re- 
gular dignity  throughout  the  whole." 

Virgil  was  also  a  philosopher,  having  been  early  instructed  in 
the  doctrines  of  Epicurus,  which  run  through  most  of  his  wri- 
tings. Notwithstanding  he  may  be  properly  considered  as  be- 
longing to  the  Epicurean  sect,  he  sometimes  introduces  the  opi- 
nions of  other  sects,  as  in  the  fourth  Georgic,  he  gives  the  doc- 
trines of  the  disciples  of  Zeno  with  regard  to  the  origin  of 
things: 

His  quidam  signis  atque  haec  exempla  secuti, 
Esse  apibus  partem  divinae  mentis,  et  haustus 
jEtheriosdixere:  deum  namque  ire  per  onines 
Terrasque,  tractusque  maris,  coelumque  profundum 
Hincpecudes,  armenta,  viros,  genus  omne  ferarum 
Quemque  sibi  tenues  nascentem  arcessere  vitas, 
Scilicit  hue  reddi  deinde,  ac  resoluta  referri 
Onmia:  nee  morte  essc  locum;  sed  viva  volare 
Sideris  in  numerum,  atque  alto  succedere  coelo. 

Gear.  Lib.  IV.  22f 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE,        ^VftJ1  143 

. 

Induced  by  such  examples  some  have  taught 
That  bees  have  portions  of  etherial  thought; 
Endued  with  particles  of  heavenly  fires; 
For  God  the  whole  created  mass  inspires 
Through  heaven  and  earth  and  ocean's  depth  he  throws 
His  influence  round  and  kindles  as  he  goes, 
Hence  flocks  and  herds,  and  men,  and  beasts,  and  fowls, 
With  breath  arequicken'd,and  attract  their  souls. 
Hence  take  the  forms  his  prescience  did  ordain, 
And  into  him  at  length  resolve  again. 
No  room  is  left  for  death,  they  mount  the  sky 
And  to  their  own  congenial  planets  fly. 

Dryden. 

In  the  52d  year  of  his  age,  Virgil  set  out  for  Greece,  with  the 
design  of  putting  the  finishing  hand  to  the  ^Eneid,  and  of  devo- 
ting the  remainder  of  his  days  to  the  study  of  philosophy,  be- 
neath the  shade  of  the  venerable  groves,  where  Socrates,  Plato 
and  Aristotle  delighted  the  listening  crowd;  but  being  seized  with 
illness  he  returned  to  Brundusium,  where  he  died.  At  his  re- 
quest his  body  was  conveyed  to  Naples,  and  interred  near  that 
city,  at  the  entrance  of  what  is  now  called  the  Grotto  of  Posil- 
lipo. 

The  reign  of  Augustus  was  also  distinguished  by  the  genius  oi 
Ovid,  Tibullus,  Propertius  and  Horace.  These  celebrated  poets 
were  caressed  and  flattered  by  the  courtiers  of  Augustus,  and 
enriched  by  the  liberal  bounty  of  the  emperor  himself,  in  a  man- 
ner  hitherto  unprecedented  among  literary  men.  Augustus 
became  the  theme  of  their  warmest  panegyrics,  and  his  deeds 
and  character  were  particularly  celebrated  by  Horace,  who  was 
an  accomplished  courtier,  and  well  knew  the  susceptibility  of 
his  imperial  patron  to  the  blandishments  of  flattery,  and  who 
lost  no  opportunity  of  paying  his  court.  The  numerous  odes, 
satires  and  epistles  which  he  addressed  him,  may  be  considered 
either  as  so  many  evidences  of  fawning  adulation,  or  the  effu- 
sions of  a  grateful  heart  for  protection  and  patronage.  Thus 
in  the  first  epistle  of  the  second  book,  which  is  regarded  bv 
critics  as  one  of  his  best  performances,  he  thus  addresses  him: 

Praesenti  tibi  matures  largimur  honores 
Jurandasque    tuura  per  nomen  ponimus  aras, 
Nil  oriturum  alias,  nil  ortum  tale  fatentes. 


Yet  Rome  to  thee  her  living  honors  pays; 
By  thee  we  swenr.  to  thee  our  altars  rai? 


144 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


While  we  confess  no  prince  so  great,  so  wise, 
Hath  ever  risen,  or  shall  ever  rise. 

Francis. 


The  works  of  Ovid  have  rendered  his  name  immortal  in  the 
annals  of  literature,  while  his  misfortunes  have  excited  a  feeling 
of  compassion,  not  so  much  on  account  of  their  severity,  as  the 
mystery  in  which  the  causes  which  gave  rise  to  them  are  veiled. 
He  was  born  at  Sulmo,  ninety  miles  from  Rome,  about  forty- 
three  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  Being  intended  for  the 
bar,  his  father  sent  him  to  Rome,  and  afterwards  to  Athens,  to 
improve  himself  in  oratory.  He  made  considerable  progress  in 
the  studies  necessary  to  prepare  himself  for  the  arena  of  forensic 
controversy,  and  would,  probably,  have  made  a  conspicuous 
figure  at  the  bar,  but  seduced  by  the  charms  of  the  muses,  he  de- 
termined to  abandon  the  dry  technicalities  of  law,  and  devote 
himself  to  the  cultivation  of  poetry — an  art  more  consonant  with 
his  feelings  and  better  suited  to  the  natural  bent  of  his  genius. 
His  talents  soon  acquired  for  him  the  patronage  of  Augustus, 
and  gained  the  friendship  of  the  wits  arid  poets  who  crowded 
his  court.  For  a  time  he  sailed  smoothly  on  the  current  of  life, 
gently  propelled  by  the  breath  of  princely  favor,  but  suddenly  a 
storm  gathered,  which  burst  upon  him,  and  he  was  banished  by 
the  emperor  to  Tamos,  on  the  western  shores  of  the  Euxine 
sea.  Various  causes  have  been  assigned  for  this  rigorous  treat- 
ment of  the  poet,  all  of  which,  however,  are  little  more  than 
mere  conjecture;  but  whatever  may  have  excited  his  displea- 
sure, all  the  entreaties  and  all  the  flatteries  of  Ovid  could  hot 
procure  his  recal  from  Augustus,  or  his  successor,  Tiberius.  He 
died  at  Tamos,  in  the  59th  year  of  his  age,  17  years  after  Christ. 

Et  jacet  Euxinis   vates  Romanus  in  oris; 

Romanum  vatem  barbara  terra  tegit.'  ' 
Terra  tegit  vatem,  tenerosque  Jusit  amores 

Barbara;  quam  gelides  aluit  Ister  aquis. 

Politianus. 

A  Roman  bard  lies  on  the  Euxine's  side! 

Barbarian  earth  a  Roman  poet  holds! 
Barbarian  earth  wash'd  by  cold  Ister's  tide, 

The  poet  of  the  tender  loves  enfolds. 

Ardtn. 

His  greatest  work,  that  on  which  he  bestowed  most  labor,  is 
<he  Metamorphoses.     This  poem  is  divided  into  fifteen  books,  and 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  145 

is  not  only  a  beautiful  present  from  antiquity  to  posterity,  on 
account  of  its  smooth  and  elegant  versification,  but  is  curious 
and  interesting  for  the  many  traditions  and  circumstances  of 
ancient  mythology,  which  are  so  ingeniously  woven  together,  as 
to  form  a  complete  and  connected  poem.  Upon  this  work  his 
fame  principally  rests,  although  his  great  genius  was  powerfully 
displayed  in  his  minor  works,  in  one  of  which,  the  "Art  of  Love," 
he  lias  misused  his  talents  and  employed  them  in  the  encour- 
agement of  vice  and  licentiousness.  Although  decorated  with 
all  the  magic  of  poetry,  it  is  a  production  of  so  licentious  a  char- 
acter, that  it  ought  never  to  be  put  into  the  hands  of  youth,  as 
it  contains  maxims  and  opinions  of  the  most  pernicious  tendency, 
and  calculated  to  destroy  the  very  seeds  of  virtue  in  the  youth- 
ful bosom.  His  elegies  were  composed  during  his  exile,  and 
are  generally  written  upon  one  subject,  that  of  his  banishment 
from  the  pleasures  and  refinements  of  Rome,  to  a  dreary  and 
comfortless  habitation  on  the  shores  of  the  Euxine.  In  his  vari- 
ous writings,  with  that  liberality  which  marks  a  generous  mind, 
he  took  occasion  to  offer  the  tribute  of  just  praise  to  the  most 
celebrated  contemporary  authors,  and  he  mentions  many,  in 
terms  of  commendation,  whose  works  have  been  lost,  and  who 
are  only  known  to  the  present  generation  through  his  eulogiums. 
Tibullus  was  a  Roman  knight,  and,  for  a  time  followed  the 
profession  of  arms,  and  as  a  soldier  accompanied  his  friend 
Messala  Corvinus,to  the  island  of  Corey  ra,  but  preferring  literary 
ease  to  the  toils  and  honors  of  war,  he  returned  and  established 
himself  at  Rome.  He  had  attached  himself  to  the  cause  of 
Brutus,  and  lost  his  property  when  the  soldiers  of  the  triumvi- 
rate were  rewarded  with  the  lands  of  their  enemies.  Tibullus 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Ovid  and  Horace,  but  as  he  did  not 
condescend,  like  some  of  his  contemporaries,  to  flatter  the  pride 
of  Augustus,  he  did  not  enjoy  quite  so  much  of  the  sunshine  of 
imperial  favor.  Four  books  of  elegies  are  all  that  remain  of 
his  works.  He  wrote  in  a  pure  and  elegant  style,  and  with  a 
charm  of  expression  peculiarly  adapted  to  elegiac  composition 
which  has  procured  him  the  title  of  "Prince  of  elegiac  poetry." 
His  elegies  have  been  translated  into  English  verse  by  various 
authors,  and  have  been  selected  by  others  as  models  for  imita- 
tion. The  following  translation,  or  rather  imitation  of  one  of 

his  elegies,  is  by,  Lord  Lytleton: 

19   . 


I,. 

J46  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURF 

Say,  my  Cerinthus,  does  thy  tender  breast 
Feel  the  same  feverish  heats  that  mine  molest? 
Alas!  I  only  wish  for  health  again, 
Because  I  think  my  lover  shares  my  pain; 
For  what  would  health  avail  to  wretched  me, 
If  you  could,  unconcern'd,  my  illness  see? 

Laharpe,  speaking  of  Tibullus,  uses  the  following  language: 
"son  style  est  (Tune  elegance  exquise,  son  gout  est  pur,  sa  compo- 
sition irreproachable.  II  a  un  charme  d'expression  qu'  aucune 
traduction  ne  peut  rendre,  et  il  ne  peut  etre  bien  senti  que  par  le 
coeur.  Une  harmonic  delicieuse  porte  au  fond  de  1'ame  les  im- 
pressions les  plus  douces:  c'est  le  livre  des  amans.  11  a  de  plus 
ce  gout  pour  la  campagne,  qui  s'accorde  si  bien  avec  1'amour: 
car  la  nature  est  toujours  plus  belle  quand  on  n'y  voit  qu'un  seul 
objet."* 

Propertius  was  the  son  of  a  Roman  knight  attached  to  the  in- 
terests of  Anthony,  and  who  was  proscribed  by  Augustus.  When 
tranquillity  was  restored  to  the  Roman  empire,  Propertius  set- 
tled in  Rome,  where  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Augustus  and 
Maecenas,  and  acquired  consequent  distinction  and  consideration. 
He  died  nineteen  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  The  poetry 
of  Propertius  consisted  chiefly  of  elegies,  of  which  four  books  re- 
main. In  his  elegies  there  is  a  richness  of  style  and  dignity  of 
expression  which  seem  to  have  qualified  him  for  a  higher  order 
of  composition,  and  which  induced  Maecenas  to  request  him  to 
write  an  epic  poem,  of  which  Augustus  was  to  be  the  hero.  This 
request  he  refused,  being  unwilling  to  sacrifice  for  fame  the  free- 
dom of  his  own  inclinations,  upon  the  altar  of  flattery.  Not- 
withstanding the  energy  of  his  language  and  beauty  of  versifica- 
tion, he  is  not  free  from  censure,  on  account  of  a  voluptuousness 
of  expression  which  he  frequently  employs — a  fault  which,  in 
some  degree,  attaches  to  most  poets  of  the  age,  and  may  be  attri- 
buted to  the  manners  of  the  times,  which  wanted  that  delicacy 
of  refinement  that  characterizes  modern  society. 

Horace  may  justly  be  considered  as  the  first  Roman  lyric  poet. 
From  the  foundation  of  the  city  to  the  time  of  Augustus,  the. 
Romans  knew  no  other  species  of  lyric  poetry,  than  the  versos 
called  Sain,  a  kind  of  ode  chanted  in  honor  of  their  great  men. 
In  lyric  poetry,  Horace  had  before  him  a«  models,  the  produc 

•  fours  do  Literature,  tome  2.  .p.  1^8. 

- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  147 

lions  of  Pindar,  Anacreon,  and  other  distinguished  poets  of 
Greece,  and  so  successful  was  he  in  his  imitation  of  their  style 
and  manner,  that  he  is  pronounced  by  many  equal  to  Pindar. 
This  distinguished  poet  was  the  son  of  a  freedman,  who  sent 
him  to  Athens  to  study  philosophy.  There  he  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  the  Epicurean  sect,  which  he  afterwards  abjured 
and  became  a  stoic.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  he  attached  him- 
self to  the  fortunes  of  Brutus,  and  was  engaged  in  the  celebrated 
battle  of  Philippi,  where  he  discovered  that  he  had  no  talents 
for  war.  Of  his  disgrace  as  a  soldier  he  speaks  himself,  in  a 
strain  of  humor: 

Tecum  Philippos,  et  celerem  fugam 
Sensi,  relicta  non  bene  parmula; 

Cum  fracta  virtus,  et  minaces 

Turpe  solura  tetigere  mento. 
Sed  me  per  hostes  Mercurius  celer 
Denso  paventem  sustulit  acre. 

Car.  7,  Lib.  2. 

With  thee  I  saw  Philippi's  plain, 
Its  fatal  rout,  a  fearful  scene! 
And  dropp'd  alas!  the  inglorious  shield 
Where  valor's  self  was  forc'd  to  yield. 
Where  soil'd  in  dust  the  vanquish'd  la\ 
And  breath'd  the  indignant  soul  away, 
But  me  when  dying  with  my  fear 
Though  warring  hosts,  inwrapp'd  in  air 
Swift  did  the  god  of  wit  convey. 

Francis. 

After  the  battle  of  Philippi,  Horace  abandoned  the  profession 
@f  arms,  in  which,  from  his  first  essay,  he  was  not  likely  to  gain 
much  distinction,  and  applied  himself  to  the  cultivation  of  an 
art,  of  which  he  was  destined  to  become  a  distinguished  orna- 
ment. On  his  arrival  at  Rome,  he  concealed  himself  in  the 
house  of  a  friend,  and,  in  a  short  time,  was  introduced  to  Virgil, 
who,  with  that  generosity  that  belongs  to  great  minds,  warmly 
embraced  his  cause,  and  not  only  procured  the  restitution  of  hi? 
property,  but  tlie  favor  of  Maecenas  and  the  protection  of  Augus- 
tus. The  latter  was  so  captivated  by  his  wit,  that  he  often  in- 
vited him  to  his  table,  and  took  great  pleasure  in  his  society. 
He  died  in  the  58th  year  of  his  age,  about  three  weeks  before 
his  friend  Maecenas. 

Horace  is  the  only  one  of  the  latin  lyric  poets  whose  works 
have  reached  us — there  were  others  who  courted  the  lyric  fftuse. 


148 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


but,  according  to  Quintillian,  without  much  success ;  indeed,  he 
assures  us  that  there  were  no  others  whose  works  deserved  to  be 
transmitted  to  posterity.  Quintillian  was  a  great  admirer  of 
Horace,  and  extols  his  great  merit  as  a  poet,  and  hi&  judg- 
ment has  been  confirmed  by  modern  criticism.  His  satires  and 
epistles  are  full  of  good  sense,  and  his  odes  are  the  best  speci- 
mens of  that  kind  of  poetry  among  the  Romans,  evincing  in  al- 
most every  line  a  polished  and  delicate  taste,  worthy  the  age  he 
honored.  We  cannot  conclude  our  notice  of  Horace  more  to 
the  purpose,  than  with  the  following  remarks  of  Dr.  Blair: 
"No  poet  supports  a  moral  sentiment  with  more  dignity,  touches 
a  gay  one  more  happily,  or  possesses  the  art  of  trifling  more 
agreeably.  His  language  is  so  fortunate  that  with  a  single 
word  or  epithet,  he  often  conveys  whole  descriptions  to  the 
fancy.  Hence  he  has  been,  and  ever  will  continue  to  be,  a  fa- 
vorite author  with  all  persons  of  taste." 

Horace  was  the  last  poet  who  distinguished  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus. The  period  which  intervened  between  the  death  of  the 
latter  and  the  accession  of  Commodus  to  the  Roman  purple, 
constitutes  an  era  in  which  general  literature  flourished  to  a 
considerable  degree,  notwithstanding  the  oppressive  govern- 
ment of  cruel  and  tyrannical  rulers.  Although  every  crime  and 
every  vice  denounced  in  the  decalogue,  and  which  can  disgrace 
human  nature,  marked  the  characters  and  distinguished  the 
reigns  of  the  seven  immediate  successors  of  Augustus,  yet  genius 
and  learning  found  protection  and  encouragement  under  the 
mild  and  equitable  rule  of  Vespasian,  Titus,  Nerva,  Trajan, 
Adrian,  Antoninus  Pius  and  Marcus  Aurelius,  princes  who  ho- 
nored the  diadem  they  wore. 

That  the  character  and  genius  of  a  government  have  ever  had 
a  considerable  influence  upon  the  state  of  literature,  the  history 
of  all  civilized  nations  affords  abundant  proof,  and  is  readily  ad- 
mitted by  all  who  have  paid  any  attention  to  the  subject.  This 
was  apparent  under  the  liberal  government  of  Greece,  where 
every  man  was  free  to  speak  his  sentiments  in  the  public  assem- 
blies, or  in  the  streets;  and  also,  under  the  different  forms  of  the 
Roman  government,  whether  regal,  republican  or  imperial,  and 
the  rigor  or  mildness  with  which  they  were  respectively  admi- 
nistered. VVe  have  already  seen,  that  Greece  had  attained  a 
high  rank  in  literature  long  before  it  was  even  known  in  Rome : 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  j 49 

but  the  latter  city  having  at  length  introduced  it  within  its  walls, 
and  its  advantages  comprehended,  a  strong  impression  was  made 
upon  the  public  mind,  and,  notwithstanding  the  trouble  and 
confusion  incident  to  civil  wars  and  internal  commotions,  it 
spread  with  rapidity,  and  under  Augustus,  who  was  anxious  to 
direct  the  people  from  the  contemplation  of  the  means  by  which 
he  attained  to  power,  it  grew  and  flourished  like  a  tree  planted 
by  the  water's  side.  As  literature  flourished  during  the  last 
days  of  the  republic,  and  under  the  liberal  sway  of  Augustus,  so 
the  more  despotic  the  government  became,  the  more  did  it  feel 
its  corrupting  influence  in  that  artificial,  flattering  and  servile 
style  which  marked  the  writings  of  many;  thus  we  find  Lucan, 
although  a  stern  republican  in  principle,  addressing  Nero,  in  a 
strain  of  the  most  fulsome  adulation: 

Sed  nequc  in  Arctoo  sedem  tibi  legeris  orbe, 
Nee  polus  adversi  calidus  qua  mergitur  austri; 
^Etheris  immensi  partem  si  presseris  unani 
Sentiet  axis  onus.     Liorati  ponderaCoeli 
Orbe   tenem  medio. 

Lucan  Phar.Leb.  1,53. 

But  Oh !  whatever  be  thy  godhead  great, 
Fix  not  in  regions  too  remote  thy  seat; 
Nor  deign  thou  near  the  frozen  bear  to  shine, 
Nor  where  the  southern  sultry  stars  decline. 
Press  not  too  much  on  any  part  the  sphere, 
Hard  were  the  task  thy  weight  divine  to  bear; 
Soon  would  the  axis  feel  the  unusual  load, 
And, groaning,  bend  beneath  the  incumbent  God; 
O'er  the  mid  orb  more  equal  shalt  thou  rise, 
And  with  a  juster  balance  fix  the  skies. 

Rowe, 

The  bold  and  manly  freedom  of  thought  and  action  which 
distinguished  the  republican  character  disappeared,  and  genius 
and  talents,  restrained  in  their  exercise,  dared  not  give  utter- 
ance to  their  true  inspirations;  hence,  under  Tiberius,  Caligula, 
Claudius  and  Nero,  we  find  but  few  poets,  historians,  orators 
or  philosophers.  But  when  the  sceptre  fell  from  their  unskil- 
ful hands,  and  was  held  in  the  vigorous  grasp  of  a  Vespasian,  a 
Titus  and  an  Antoninus,  genius  again  came  forth  from  her  hiding- 
place,  and  learning  was  permitted,  not  only  to  see  the  light, 
but  extend  its  influence;  but  unhappily  for  mankind,  short 
was  its  reign.  On  the  death  of  Aurelius,  the  profligate  Com- 
modus  ascended  the  throne  of  the  Csesars,  and  so  withering  was 


j  5Q  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

his  touch,  that  from  this  time  may  be  dated  the  decline  of  learn- 
ing. 

Although  during  the  period  abovementioned,  several  great 
men  in  the  different  departments  of  learning  flourished,  prose  ap- 
pears to  have  been  more  cultivated  than  poetry.  The  muses,  who, 
under  the  reign  of  Augustus  were  unrestrained  in  their  flight, 
and  soared  aloft  on  fancy's  wings,  as  if  nearly  exhausted  by  the 
mighty  efforts  that  inspired  a  Horace,  a  Virgil  and  an  Ovid,  seem 
to  have  slumbered  amidst  the  retired  and  shady  groves  of  Par- 
nassus, awakening  only  to  give  vigor  and  energy  to  the  genius  of 
Lucan  and  a  few  others. 

Lucan  was  born  at  Corduba,  (now  Cordova)  in  Spain,  about 
the  year  39  A.  D.  He  was  the  nephew  of  the  celebrated  philo- 
sopher Seneca,  and  removed  to  Rome  during  the  reign  of  Nero, 
the  unworthy  grandson  of  Germanicus,  where  he  hoped  to  gain 
distinction  and  bask  in  the  sunshine  of  imperial  favor.  He 
possessed  ejreat  talents  for  poetry,  but  on  his  arrival  in  Rome  he 
prostituted  them  in  singing  the  praises  of  Nero,  by  whom  he  was 
successively  invested  with  the  dignities  of  Questor  and  Augur, 
before  the  age  prescribed  by  law.  Nero  was  as  vain  of  his  ta- 
lents as  a  poet,  as  he  was  conspicuous  for  vice  and  cruelty,  and 
challenged  Lucan  to  a  poetical  contest.  Lucan,  full  of  youthful 
ardor,  and  ambitious  of  distinction,  but  forgetful  of  the  situa- 
tion in  which  he  stood,  and  the  exalted  rank  of  his  competitor, 
entered  with  spirit  into  the  contest,  and  gained  the  prize,  which 
so  enraged  his  imperial  rival,  that  he  determined  to  be  revenged. 
An  opportunity  soon  offered  to  satisfy  the  wounded  pride  of 
Nero,  and  at  the  same  time,  gratify  his  thirst  for  blood,  in  the 
detection  of  the  conspiracy  of  Piso,  in  which  Lucan  was  con- 
cerned. On  being  arrested  he  was  exhorted  to  reveal  the 
names  of  his  accomplices,  under  the  promise  of  pardon,  when, 
as  the  historian  Tacitus  declares  in  his  "Annals,"  he  had  the  base- 
jiess  to  accuse  his  own  mother;  his  meanness  did  not  avail  him, 
and  the  only  favor  the  wretched  man  received  was,  to  choose 
the  manner  of  his  death.  He  had  his  veins  opened  in  a  warm 
bath,  and  died  in  the  26th  year  of  his  age,  A.  D.  65.  However 
high  a  character  ancient  and  modern  writers  have  conferred  on 
him  as  a  poet,  and  however  deserving  he  may  be  as  such,  his 
reputation  as  a  man  must  greatly  suffer  for  the  mean  spirit  he 


HISTORY' OF  LITERATURE.  15! 

betrayed,  when,  to  save  his  own  life,  he  denounced  his  mother 
as  a  conspirator. 

Of  his  writings,  nothing  remains  but  his  Pharsalia,  which  he 
left  in  an  unfinished  state.  This  poem  is  founded  on  the  civil 
wars  that  raged  between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  and  terminated 
with  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  where  Pompey  was  defeated  with 
great  loss,  and  all  his  aspiring  hopes  cut  off.  Caesar  and  Pom- 
pey were  two  of  the  most  celebrated  men  of  the  age  in  which 
they  lived,  and  have  been  surpassed  by  none  of  ancient  or  modern 
times,  in  those  high-wrought  qualities  which  constitute  the  ac- 
complished soldier  and  commander;  but  they  were  ambitious — 
both  aspiring  to  erect  the  fabric  of  their  own  power  upon  the 
prostrate  liberties  of  their  country.  The  fortune  of  Caesar  pre- 
vailed, and  Pompey,  after  filling  so  large  a  space  in  the  public 
eye,  fell  a  miserable  victim  to  "ill-weaved  ambition."  In  all  his 
misfortunes  Pompey  was  great. 

Stat  magni  nominis  umbra, 

Qualis,  frugifero  quercus  sublimis  in  agro. 
Exuvias  veteres  populi,  sacrataque  gestans 
Dona  ducum;  nee  jam  validis  radicibus  haerens. 
Pondere  fixa  suo  est;  nudos  que  per  acra  ramos 
Effundens,  trunco,  non  frcmdibus,  efficit  umbrani 
Atquamvis  prime  nutetcasura  sub  Euro, 
Et  circura  silvae  firmo  se  robore  tollant, 
Sola  tamen  colitur. 

Phar.  Lib.  1,  32, 

He  stood  the  shadow  of  what  once  he  was; 
So  in  the  field  with  Ceres'  bounty  spread, 
Uprears  some  ancient  oak  his  reverend  head, 
Chaplets  and  sacred  gifts  his  brows  adorn, 
And  spoils  of  war  by  mighty  heroes  won; 
But  the  first  vigor  of  his  root  now  gone, 
He  stands  dependant  on  his  weight  alone. 
All  care  his  native  branches  are  undisplay'd 
And  with  his  leafless  trunk  he  forms  a  shade ; 
Yet  though  the  winds  his  ruin  daily  threat, 
As  every  blast  would  heave  him  from  his  seat; 
Though  thousand  fairer  trees  the  field  supplies 
That  rich  in  youthful  verdure  round  him  rise, 
Fix'd  in  his  ancient  seat  he  yields  to  none 
And  wears  the  honors  of  the  grove  alone. 

Rove. 

The  exploits  of  these  celebrated  men  form  the  principal  sub- 
ject of  the  poem,  and,  if  the  versification  of  Lucan  does  not  pos- 


152  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

sess  the  force,  freedom  and  energy  of  Homer  and  Viigil,  it  will 
be  recollected  that  he  wrote  under  the  tyranny  of  Nero,  and* 
being  only  twenty-six  years  of  age,  he  could  not  possess  the  ri- 
pened judgment  and  the  experience  of  the  fathers  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  epic.  The  learned,  even  of  modern  times,  are  divi- 
ded as  to  the  merits  of  the  author  of  Pharsalia;  by  some  he  is 
ranked  among  epic  poets,  by  others  as  a  mere  declaimer,  desti- 
tute of  all  the  qualities  which  constitute  the  great  poet.  With- 
out entering  into  a  controversy  on  this  subject,  or  setting  up  our 
humble  judgment  against  learned  and  labored  criticism,  we  only 
observe,  that  the  dispassionate  critic  must  pronounce,  that  al- 
though unfinished,  it  exhibits  many  passages  of  genuine  poetic 
inspiration  and  of  spirited  description. 

At  this  period  flourished  Persius,  the  immediate  successor  of 
Horace  as  a  satirist.  Horace  was  the  first  Roman  who  acqui- 
red fame  as  a  writer  of  satires.  As  he  was  naturally  of  a  gay 
and  lively  disposition,  and  possessed  none  of  the  "acrid  temper"' 
that  Cowper  attributes  to  most  satirists,  his  satires  were  gene- 
rally of  that  easy,  graceful  and  polite,  yet  severe  character, 
which  reproves  without  employing  low  and  unbecoming  lan- 
guage. The  true  end  of  satire  is,  the  improvement  of  society 
and  the  reformation  of  manners,  by  censuring  vice  and  vicious 
characters,  and,  when  skilfully  used,  it  is  highly  beneficial  in 
correcting  the  vices  and  follies  of  the  times;  but 

Unless  a  love  of  virtue  light  the  flame, 
Satire  is,  more  than  those  he  brands,  to  blame: 
He  hides  behind  a  magisterial  air 
His  own  offences,  and  strips  others  bare. 

Cowper, 

The  lash  of  satire,  when  judiciously  and  fearlessly  applied, 
often  produces  more  useful  results,  than  the  labored  dissertation 
.over  which  the  midnight  oil  has  been  wasted,  or  even  the  most 
impressive  exhortation  from  the  sacred  desk. 

Persius  was  a  native  of  Volatura,  a  town  of  Etruria,  and,  from 
his  own  account,  was  designed  by  nature  for  a  satirist.  In  the 
first  satire,  addressing  his  friend,  he  says: 

Quid  faciam?  sed  sum  petulanti  splene  cachino. 

Per.  Sat.  1,1? 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


Nature  fram'd  me  of  satiric  mould 


And  spleen,  too  petulant  to  becontroll'd. 

Giffbrd. 

Persius  removed  to  Rome  at  sixteen  years  of  age,  where  he 
became  a  disciple  of  Cornutus,  a  philosopher  of  the  school  of 
Zeno,  to  whom  he  ever  after  continued  so  firmly  attached,  as  to 
exhibit  a  pleasing  instance  of  grateful  affection  of  a  pupil  for 
his  master.  In  the  fifth  satire  he  thus  speaks  of  his  preceptor: 

, Tibi  nunc,  hortante  Camcena, 

Excutienda  damus  praecordia;  quantaque  nostrcc 
Pars  tua  sit,  Cornute,  anima?  tibi,  dulcis  amice 
Ostendisse  juvat.     Pulsa;  dignoscere  cautus 
Quid  solidum  crepet,  et  picta?  tecUma  linguae 
His  ego  centenas  ausimdeposcere  voces 
Ut,  quantum  mihi  te  sinuoso  in  pectore  fixi, 
Voce  traham  pura;  totumque  hoc  verba  resignent 
Quod  latet  arcana  non  enarribile,  fibra. 

Per.  Sat.  V.  22. 

Yes,  best  of  mortals!  't  is  my  pride  to  own 

How  much  my  breast  is  filled  with  you  alone! 

Ring  them — for  to  your  practis'd  ear  the  sound 

Will  show  the  solid,  and  where  guile  is  found 

Beneath  the  varnish'd  tongue.     For  this,  in  fine, 

I  dar'd  to  wish  an  hundred  voices  mine; 

Proud  to  declare  how  closely  twin'd  you  dwell — 

How  deeply  fix'd  in  my  heart's  inmost  cell: 

And  paint,  in  words;  ah,  could  they  paint  the  whole, 

The  ineffable  sensations  of  my  soul. 

Gifford. 

Such  sentiments,  so  feelingly  expressed,  mark  an  elevated 
mind,  and  one  whose  heart  was  warmed  by  the  amiable  and  be- 
nevolent principles  of  our  nature,  notwithstanding  the  "petulance 
and  spleen"  which  he  attributes  to  himself.  The  satires  of  Per- 
sius, that  have  reached  the  present  time,  are  but  six  in  num- 
ber, which  have  been  translated  with  spirit  and  elegance  by 
Giffbrd,  and  are  distinguished  for  perspicuity  of  style  and  deli- 
cacy of  language.  Persius  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nero — in  that 
degenerate  age,  when  vice  and  cruelty  reigned  triumphant  and 
lorded  it  over  fallen  man.  If  Persius  was  not  as  open  and  da- 
ring in  his  attacks  as  his  contemporary  Juvenal,  he  neverthe- 
less lashed  with  severity,  whatever  he  undertook  to  satirize ;  it 
is,  however,  attributed  to  him  as  a  fault,  that  while  he  ridiculed 
the  idle  and  vicious  habits  of  the  young  nobility,  and  the  faults 
of  poets  and  orator?,  he  permitted  greater  culprits,  those  who 

20 


1  54  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

were  trampling  upon  the  rights  and  liberties  of  his  country,  to 
pass  with  but  slight  castigation.  Satirical  poems,  in  general, 
lose  much  of  their  interest,  by  the  lapse  of  time  and  ignorance 
of  the  particular  circumstances  that  occasioned  them ;  thus  ma- 
ny of  the  satires  of  Persius  and  Juvenal,  and  the  epigrams  of 
Martial,  appear  to  us  obscure  and  almost  unintelligible,  when 
to  their  contemporaries,  they  exhibited  much  biting  sarcasmr 
and  were  read  with  avidity,  because  they  were  conversant  with 
the  characters  alluded  to,  and  the  errors  and  vices  censured^ 
Persius  died  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  his  age. 

Juvenal  was  born  about  the  year  38,  A.  D.,  at  Aquinam,  a  town 
of  the  Volsci.  He  first  intended  to  pursue  the  profession  of 
iaw,  and  much  of  his  time  was,  therefore,  employed  in  declama- 
tory exercises,  and  such  other  studies  and  preparations  as  were 
deemed  necessary  to  attain  distinction  at  the  bar.  Possessing 
a  talent  for  poetry,  he  abandoned  the  law,  and  applied  himself 
to  that  particular  species  for  which  he  was  afterwards  so  distin- 
guished, namely,  satire.  He  appears  to  have  possessed  the  es- 
sential requisites  of  a  satirist;  among  others,  a  fearless  and  in- 
dependent spirit,  which  refused  to  sing  the  praises  of  such  des- 
picable tyrants  as  Nero  and  Domitian.  Regardless  of  conse- 
quences, he  boldly  attacked  Paris,  a  celebrated  player,  the  favo- 
rite of  Nero  and  Domitian,  who  first  felt  his  shafts.  Through 
the  influence  of  Paris,  he  was  sent  by  Domitian  into  Egypt,  as  a 
kind  of  banishment,  from  which  he  was  recalled  by  Nerva.  He 
lived  to  the  advanced  age  of  eighty  years,  and  died  under  the 
reign  of  Trajan.  The  satires  of  Juvenal  that  have  reached  the 
present  time,  amount  to  sixteen  in  number,  and  have  been  trans- 
lated by  Giffbrd,  who  has  transfused  into  his  translation  all  the 
lofty  and  independent  spirit  of  the  original,  avoiding  the  low 
and  indecent  language  in  which  Juvenal  sometimes  indulged, 
and  which  indeed,  disarmed  some  of  his  satires  of  their  sting. 
As  a  poet,  in  the  particular  species  which  he  chose  for  the  exer- 
cise of  his  talents,  he  holds  an  elevated  rank,  which  ancient  and 
modern  critics  have  united  to  assign  him.  His  shafts  were 
chiefly  directed  against  the  vices  of  the  degenerate  age  in  which 
he  lived,  and  were,  in  general,  sufficiently  keen  and  pointed  to 
produce  the  desired  effect. 

Martial  was  a  native  of  Spain,  and  went  to  Rome  about  the 
twentieth  year  of  hi?  ago.  for  the  purpose  of  studying  law.  Lik* 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE,  155 

Juvenal  and  Persius,  he  deserted  the  courts  of  law  for  the  court 
of  the  muses,  and  possessing  a  pliant  temper,  by  which  he  be- 
came "all  things  to  all  men,"  he  gained  the  favor  of  the  great  by 
gross  flattery  and  indiscriminate  panegyrics.  The  profligate 
Domitian,  the  degenerate  son  of  Vespasian,  was  the  peculiar 
subject  of  his  praise.  The  first  book  of  his  epigrams  is  nearly- 
one  continued  strain  of  adulation.  Although  Martial  extolled 
this  despicable  and  worthless  tyrant  while  he  wielded  the  scep- 
tre, as  a  pattern  of  public  and  private  virtue,  when  dead  he  re- 
presented him  as  the  most  vicious  of  men.  The  virtuous  Tra- 
jan treated  him  with  deserved  neglect,  in  consequence  of  which 
he  retired  to  his  native  country,  where  lie  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  days,  neglected  and  forgotten. 

The  epigram,  for  which  Martial  was  distinguished,  is  a  species 
of  poetic  composition,  approaching  nearly  to  the  satire,  having 
in  view  the  same  object,  the  censure  and  lidicule  of  vice  and 
folly.  In  satire,  the  subject  matter  is  sometimes  much  amplified 
and  extended,  whilst  in  the  epigram,  the  great  object  of  the  au- 
thor is  to  compress,  and  bring  the  subject  to  a  point  in  a  few 
lines.  Fourteen  books  of  his  epigrams  are  still  extant;  and  al- 
though they  have  lost  much  of  their  force,  in  consequence  of 
the  length  of  time  that  has  elapsed,  and  our  ignorance  of  the 
particular  transactions  to  which  they  allude,  yet  they  are  re- 
markable for  that  tartness  of  expression  and  peculiar  turn,  which 
constitute  the  chief  merit  of  epigrammatic  writing.  The  follow- 
ing, in  which  he  contrasts  a  retired  life,  with  life  in  Rome,  was 
probably  written  about  the  time  of  his  retirement  into  Spain. 
It  is  the  96th  epigram  of  the  tenth  book: 

Me,  who  have  liv'd  so  long  among  the  great, 

You  wonder  to  hear  talk  of  a  retreat: 

And  a  retreat  so  distant,  as  may  show 

]\o  thoughts  of  a  return,  when  once  I  go. 

Give  me  a  country,  how  remote  soe'er, 

Where  happiness  a  moderate  rate  does  bear, 

Where  poverty  itself  in  plenty  flows, 

And  all  the  solid  use  of  riches  knows. 

The  ground  about  the  house  maintains  it,  there; 

The  house  maintains  the  ground  about  it,  here ; 

Here  even  hunger  's  dear;  and  a  full  board 

Devours  the  vital  substance  of  the  lord, 

The  land  itself  does  there  the  feast  bestow, 

The  land  itself  must  here  to  market  go. 

Three  or  four  suits  one  winter  here  does  wastr. 


156  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

One  suit  does  there  three  or  four  winters  last. 
Here  every  frugal  man  must  oft  be  cold, 
And  little  lukewarm  fires  to  you  are  sold, 
There  fire  's  an  element,  as  cheap  and  free 
Almost,  as  any  of  the  other  three. 
Stay  you  then  here,  and  live  among  the  great, 
Attend  their  sports,  and  of  their  tables  eat, 
When  all  the  bounties  here  of  men  you  score 
The  place's  bounty  there  shall  give  you  more. 

Conley. 

Contemporary  with  Juvenal,  Persius  and  Martial,  were  Sil-ius 
Italicus  and  Statins.  Silius  was  also  originally  designed  for  the 
bar,  and  was,  for  some  time,  a  distinguished  member  of  it,  but 
after  the  death  of  Nero,  in  whose  reign  he  was  one  year  consul, 
he  retired  from  Rome  and  fixed  his  residence  near  Naples,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits.  He  was  a  great  admi- 
rer of  Virgil,  and  every  year  celebrated  his  birthday  with  great 
pomp.  In  his  writings  he  endeavored  to  imitate  the  style  and 
manner  of  Virgil,  but  was  not  very  successful.  Of  the  works  of 
Silius  there  remains  only  an  historical  poem  in  seventeen  books, 
the  subject  of  which  is  the  second  Punic  war.  In  the  construc- 
tion of  his  poem  he  has  displayed  very  little  invention,  content- 
ing himself  with  scrupulously  following  the  order  and  details  of 
events  as  they  occurred  from  the  siege  of  Seguritum  to  the  de- 
feat of  Hannibal  and  the  subjection  of  Carthage  to  the  victori- 
ous Scipio.  Silius  died  in  the  75th  year  of  his  age. 

Statins  was  born  at  Naples  in  the  reign  of  Domitian.  He  was 
the  author  of  many  works,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  is,  the 
Thcbais,  in  twelve  books,  the  subject  of  this  poem  is,  the  unhappy 
quarrel  between  Etrocles  and  Polynices,  the  sons  of  (Edipus, 
who,  on  the  death  of  their  father,  agreed  to  sway,  by  turns,  the 
sceptre  of  Thebes.  His  poem  was  dedicated  to  Domitian,  whom 
the  poet,  with  servile  flattery,  ranked  among  the  gods.  Statiim 
was  very  popular  as  a  poet  at  Rome,  and  Martial  informs  us, 
that  vast  crowds  were  accustomed  to  attend  when  any  part  of 
his  Thebais  was  to  be  recited  in  public.  Modern  criticism  has 
not,  in  this  instance,  confirmed  the  judgment  of  his  contempora- 
ries, but  has  pronounced  his  poem  to  be  without  interest, 
and  his  style  bombastic  and  affected.  Laharpe,  whose  opinions 
we  have  frequently  adopted,  because  we  believe  them  to  be  the 
result  of  correct  taste  and  sound  judgment,  speaks  of  Statius  in 
a  tone  of  contempt,  and  regards  his  works  as  scarcely  worth 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


157 


preservation.  Statius  was  the  author  also  of  several  dramatic 
works,  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  written  to  procure  hread. 
He  died  about  100  years  after  Christ. 

We  will  conclude  our  notice  of  the  Roman  poets  with  Phcc- 
drus,  the  fabulist,  who  was  by  birth  a  Thracian,  and  was  one  of 
the  freedmen  of  Augustus.  Fables  were  pieces  of  wit  that  made 
their  appearance  in  very  early  ages  of  the  world,  and  were  used 
to  inculcate  some  useful  and  instructive  moral  lesson,  in  lan- 
guage familiar  and  easily  to  be  comprehended  by  all  to  whom 
they  were  addressed.  As  an  original  and  inventive  genius  we 
know  nothing  of  Phoedrus ;  he  is  only  known  to  us  as  the  transla- 
tor of  JSsop's  fables  into  iambic  verses.  The  works  of  Phoedrus 
escaped  the  observation  of  the  moderns,  until  about  the  close  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  when  a  copy  was  accidentally  discovered 
in  the  library  of  St.  Remi,  at  Rheims. 

Notwithstanding  the  gjreat  improvements  introduced  into  the- 
atrical representations  by  the  genius  and  talents  of  Plautus  and 
Terence,  and  the  taste  that  many  of  the  Roman  people  imbibed 
for  such  amusements  during  the  reign  of  Augustus,  it  is  a  re- 
markable fact,  that  Rome  produced  no  dramatic  writer  of  any 
reputation  after  Terence ;  at  least  none  whose  fame  has  been 
transmitted  to  modern  times.  The  dearth  of  dramatic  talent 
may  be  accounted  for  in  the  despotic  nature  of  the  government 
after  the  demise  of  Augustus,  and  in  the  increasing  attachment 
of  the  Roman  people,  to  the  cruel  and  inhuman  spectacles  exhi- 
bited in  the  ampitheatres,  where  slaves  and  criminals  were  made 
to  contend  with  the  most  ferocious  wild  beasts,  and  where  gladi- 
ators, regularly  trained  to  the  arts  of  attack  and  defence,  exhi- 
bited their  skill  and  prowess  in  deadly  contests  with  each  other. 
Although  theatrical  amusements,  in  which  were  united  intellec- 
tual pleasure  and  the  gratification  of  the  senses,  restrained,  in  a 
considerable  degree,  under  Julius  Caesar  and  Augustus,  the  com- 
bats of  gladiators,  yet,  under  those  monsters  of  iniquity  and 
cruelty,  Nero  and  Domitian,  they  were  revived  with  full  force, 
and  continued  to  amuse  an  assembly  of  Romans,  until  finally  abo- 
lished by  the  emperor  Honorius,  A.  D.  403.  Honorius  was  in- 
duced to  take  this  step  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  Telema- 
chus,  a  Christian  hermit,  who,  inspired  by  a  holy  zeal,  left  his 
cell  among  the  mountains  of  Syria,  to  put  a  stop  to  such  cruel 
exhibitions,  and  throwing  himself  amidst  the  combatants  in  the 


I5tf  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

arena,  with  that  benevolent,  intent,  was  stoned  to  death  by  the 
spectators.  In  these  cruel  exhibitions,  so  revolting  to  our  feel- 
ings, and  so  repugnant  to  all  our  ideas  of  amusement,  some  of 
the  emperors,  particularly  those  we  have  named,  greatly  de- 
lighted, because  they  gratified  that  thirst  for  blood,  for  which 
they  were  more  distinguished,  than  for  any  great  or  useful  quality; 
and,  as  in  monarchical  governments,  the  people  are  apt  to  imi- 
tate the  manners  of  the  great,  and  even  follow  their  tastes,  the 
genuine  drama,  which  unites  the  charms  of  poetry  and  music, 
and  which  has  a  tendency  to  soften  the  heart  and  refine  the 
manners,  was  forced  to  yield  to  the  supremacy  of  gladiatorial 
combats.  Thus  it  was,  that  in  the  temples  of  the  muses,  the 
shrines  of  Melpomene  and  Thalia  were  abandoned  and  forgot- 
ten, and  dramatic  poetry  was  neglected  and  uncultivated. 

The  shows  of  gladiators,  which  took  such  hold  upon  the  Ro- 
man people,  and,  as  we  think,  had  a  considerable  influence  in 
preventing  the  cultivation  of  dramatic  poetry,  were  first  exhi- 
bited about  400  years  after  the  foundation  of  the  city,  by  the 
sons  of  Brutus,  at  the  funeral  of  their  father,  and  fop  many  years 
were  only  exhibited  on  such  occasions.  The  magistrates  at 
length  exhibited  them  at  the  Saturnalia,  or  feasts  in  honor  of 
Saturn,  and  "though  calculated  rather  to  move  pity  and  cause 
horror,  than  to  ^ive  pleasure,  yet,  like  other  scenes  which  ex- 
cite hopes  and  fears,  and  keep  the  mind  in  suspense,  they  were 
admired  by  the  multitude,  and  became  frequent  on  all  solemn 
occasions  and  festivals."  We  can  form  a  pretty  correct  opinion 
of  the  attachment  of  the  people  to  such  exhibitions,  when  we 
find  the  virtuous  Trajan,  on  whom  a  whole  people  conferred 
the  title  of  Optimus,  or  Most  Excellent,  yielding  to  the  predilec- 
tions of  his  countrymen,  and,  on  his  triumph  after  the  Dacian 
war,  exhibiting  games  which  continued  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
three  days,  and  during  which,  ten  thousand  gladiators  engaged 
in  mortal  fight  for  the  amusement  and  gratification  of  a  depraved 
populace : 

I  see  before  me  the  gladiator  lie; 
He  leans  upon  his  hand — his  manly  brow 
Consents  to  death,  but  conquers  agony, 
-  And  his  droop'd  head  sinks  gradually  low; 
And  through  his  side,  the  last  drops  ebbing  slow 
From  the  red  gash,  fall  heavy,  one  by  one, 
r.ike  the  first  of  a  thunder  shower,  and  now 


*    '  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  j  ^ 

The  arena  swims  around  him :  he  is  gone, 

E're  ceas'd  the  inhuman  shout  thathail'd  the  wretch  who  won!' 

- 

He  heard,  but  heeded  not;  his  eyes 
Were  with  his  heart,  and  that  was  far  away. 
He  reck'd  not  of  the  life  he  lost,  nor  prize, 
„    . .  But  where  his  rude  hut  by  the  Danube  lay ; 

There  were  his  young  barbarians  all  at  play — 
There  was  their  Dacian  mother;  he,  theirsire, 
Butcher'd  to  make  a  Roman  holiday! 

Child.  Har. 

,  '  Such  is  the  influence  of  example  when  our  propensities  are 
left  free  and  uncontrolled  by  the  principles  of  humanity;  and  so 
callous  do  we  become  to  the  most  bloody  scenes  by  frequent 
exhibitions,  that,  according  to  Tacitus,  the  faithful  and  elegant 
historian  of  the  times,  Roman  knights,  senators,  and  even  women 
of  illustrious  rank,  laying  aside  the  modesty  of  their  sex,  de- 
scended into  the  arena,  and  engaged  in  combat.  How  sadly 
depraved  must  the  state  of  society  have  been,  when  such  scenes 
were  permitted,  and  how  greatly  inferior  was  the  Roman  to  the 
Grecian  character.  The  latter  never  permitted  such  foul  and  bloo- 
dy exhibitions  to  pollute  their  theatres,  nor  did  the  lowest  and  most 
abandoned  of  their  women  ever  expose  their  persons,  as  prize- 
fighters in  the  arena.  The  only  practice  among  the  Greeks,  that 
approached  the  shows  of  gladiators,  was  considered  a  reli- 
gious rite.  In  the  heroic  ages,  according  to  the  then  usages 
of  war,  captives  were  sometimes  slain  upon  a  warrior's  tomb,  not 
to  amuse  the  assembled  crowd,  but  to  appease  the  manes  of  the 
departed.  Thus  Homer  relates,  that  at  the  funeral  of  PatrocluSv 
Achilles  slew  twelve  Trojan  captives  on  his  tomb: 

Then,  last  of  all,  and  horrible  to  tell, 

Sad  sacrifice!  twelve  Trojan  captives  fell.' 

Pope. 

*  Schlegel's  Lee.;  Ken.  Rom,  Ant.;  Cour?  de  Lit,;  Gif.  Pers.;  Gif.Juv.;  Mad.de 
Stael.  Inf.  of  Lit;  Fer,  Rome. 


y 

••    m 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 


CHAPTER  X. 


Literature  of  the  Romans.  Roman  Historians  :  Pictor,  Caesar,  JVe- 
pos,  Livy,  Paterculus,  Tacitus,  Quintus  Curtius,  Suetonius,  Jus- 
tin, Arrian,  Pausanias. 

IN  the  present  highly  improved  state  of  human  knowledge 
in  all  its  various  departments,  the  importance  of  accurate  his- 
torical records  or  details  is  so  apparent  to  all,  that  their  study 
forms  a  prominent  portion  of  a  polite  education.  We  who  thus 
feel  their  value,  are  astonished  how  any  nation,  possessing  a 
knowledge  of  alphabetic  writing,  and  consequently  a  certain 
means  of  preserving  a  record  of  events,  should  neglect  a  matter 
of  so  much  interest,  not  only  to  themselves,  but  to  posterity,  as  a 
faithful  and  connected  historical  narrative  of  the  affairs  of  their 
own  country.  An  acquaintance  with  the  wars  and  revolutions 
which  have  shaken  and  overturned  empires,  and  with  the  motives 
which  influenced  the  great  actors,  not  only  affords  subjects  for 
interesting  speculation,  but  has  a  tendency  to  banish  many  of 
the  prejudices  and  illiberal  feelings  too  often  indulged  by  one 
nation  towards  another;  and  from  this  source  too,  we  derive 
much  of  that  pleasure  and  satisfaction  which  constitute  the 
charm  of  social  intercourse,  while  we  are  also  able  to  distinguish 
virtues  and  qualities,  which  before  were  not  perceptible,  because 
of  the  false  medium  through  which  we  received  them.  The 
Romans,  although,  no  doubt,  fully  aware  of  these  advantages, 
and  of  the  necessity  of  preserving  an  account  of  the  great  even  is 
which  were  constantly  transpiring,  had  no  regular  historian,  of 
whom  we  have  any  knowledge,  until  the  time  of  Quintus  Fabius 
Piclor,  who  flourished  about  225  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
Previously  to  that  period,  they  were  satisfied  with  their  preser- 
vation in  the  public  records,  and  in  the  detached  and  unconnect- 
ed works  of  chroniclers  and  annalists;  and  most  of  these,  embra- 
cing a  period  of  363  years,  were  burnt  by  the  Gauls,  when  they 
gained  possession  of  the  city,  about  390  years  before  Christ. 
This  destruction  is  much  to  be  regretted,  because  we  are  com- 
pelled to  rely,  for  a  great  portion  of  the  early  civil  and  military 
history  of  the  Roman  people,  upon  the  uncertainty  of  tradition. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  }£  i 

and  are  consequently  unable  to  trace  with  accuracy,  their  grad- 
ual advances  from  barbarism  to  refinement — from  humble  origin 
to  imperial  grandeur. 

Quintus  Fabius  Pictor,  by  the  aid  of  such  public  records  and 
chronicles  as  had  escaped  the  destroying  hand  of  barbarian  vio- 
lence, and  such  traditionary  accounts  as  he  was  enabled  to  col- 
lect from  the  venerable  fathers  of  the  state,  composed  a  history 
of  Rome  from  the  foundation  of  the  city  to  the  year  217  before 
Christ,  embracing  a  period  of  536  years.  What  were  his  pecu- 
liar merits  as  a  writer,  with  regard  to  style  and  manner  of  compo- 
sition, cannot  now  be  determined,  as  his  works  are  not  extant — 
those  which  pass  under  his  name  being  considered  spurious. 
That  he  was  regarded  as  a  faithful  historian,  so  far  as  his  means 
of  information  enabled  him  to  be  so,  may  be  safely  inferred  from 
the  fact,  that  this  is  the  work  on  which  the  magnificent  super- 
structures of  Liny  and  others  are  erected.  To  his  industry  in 
collecting  and  arranging  in  chronological  order,  the  events  of  the 
first  ages  of  the  republic,  are  they  chiefly  indebted.  He  col- 
lected the  materials  which  they  afterwards  polished  and  applied 
to  their  own  use.  The  name,  then,  of  Fabius  Pictor,  should  oc- 
cupy, if  not  a  very  splendid,  at  least  a  very  honorable  distinc- 
tion, on  the  roll  of  fame. 

From  the  time  of  Fabius  until  near  the  period  of  the  extinc- 
tion of  Roman  .liberty,  by  the  usurpation  of  Julius  Caesar,  there 
was  no  historian  of  distinction.  About  86  years  before  Christ, 
Sallust,  who  holds  a  very  honorable  rank  among  Roman  histo- 
rians, wras  born  at  Arniternum,  a  town  of  Italy,  celebrated  in  the 
time  of  JEneas,  for  the  assistance  rendered  by  the  inhabitants  to 
Turnus,  king  of  the  Rutuli.  He  was  educated  at  Rome,  was  a 
senator,  and  held  the  offices  of  questor  and  consul,  but  being 
depraved  and  licentious  in  his  manners,  he  was  degraded  from 
the  rank  of  senator,  to  which  he  was  afterwards  restored  when 
he  embraced  the  cause  of  Caesar.  Being  made  governor  of 
Numidia,  he  did  not  scruple  to  use  his  power  for  the  purpose  of 
enriching  himself,  and  so  successful  was  he  in  his  system  of  ex- 
tortion, that  on  his  return  to  Rome  he  built  a  magnificent  house, 
which  he  adorned  with  all  the  elegance  that  wealth  could  pur- 
chase. The  site  is  still  pointed  out,  and  is  known  by  the  name 
of  the  "Gardens  of  Sallust.''  Sallust  composed  a  history  of  Rome 
more  philosophic  and  more  extensive  in  its  researches,  than  thaf 


j  (J2  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

of  Fabius,but  all  we  have  left,  are  the  histories  of  the  conspira- 
cy of  Cataline  and  the  Jugurthine  war.  In  these  works  are 
exhibited  a  vigorous  intellect,  and  a  nervous  and  animated 
style,  well  calculated  for  historical  composition,  and  he  has 
given  a  faithful  and  impartial  narrative  of  the  events  which 
form  the  main  subjects  of  his  work.  He  is,  however,  charg 
ed  by  learned  critics,  with  the  fault  we  have  ascribed  to  Thu- 
cydides,  namely,  of  putting  long  and  labored  harangues  into  the 
mouths  of  his  principal  characters,  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  his  great  command  of  language,  and  his  talent  for  that 
species  of  composition — these  harangues,  however,  being  used 
to  embellish,  do  not  impair  the  fidelity  of  the  narrative,  or  affect 
his  credibility  as  an  historian.  That  he  deserves  the  reputation 
of  a  faithful  historian,  appears  from  the  fact,  that  when  he  was; 
engaged  in  writing  the  history  of  the  Punic  wars,  he  not  only 
examined  the  best  authorities,  but  actually  visited  many  place.- 
where  engagements  had  taken  place,  that  he  might  be  accurate 
in  his  descriptions.  Salltist  married  Terentia,  the  divorced 
wife  of  Cicero,  which  caused  an  irreconcilable  quarrel  between 
them,  and  will  account  for  the  manner  in  which  Sallust  passes 
over  some  circumstances  in  the  life  of  Cicero  that  reflect  the 
greatest  honor  upon  him.  Sallust  died  35  years  before  Christ, 
in  the  fifty-first  year  of  his  age. 

In  the  list  of  Roman  historians  is  found  the  name  of  Juliuf 
Ccesar,  renowned  for  his  learning  and  eloquence,  and  that  skill 
in  politics  and  arms  which  overturned  the  Roman  republic,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  Roman  empire.  On  the  present  oc- 
casion it  is  not  our  intention  to  speak  of  his  military  achieve- 
ments, or  to  follow  him  in  that  victorious  career  by  which  hf 
attained  to  sovereign  power;  we  mean  only  to  speak  of  him  a> 
a  man  of  letters,  as  an  historian,  and  the  historian  of  wars  in  which 
he  himself  bore  a  prominent  part.  The  times  when,  and  cir- 
cumstances under  which,  he  composed  his  "Commentaries,"  ar< 
striking  evidences  of  the  energy  of  his  mind  and  the  vigor  of  his 
talents.  It  was  not  in  the  calm  retirement  of  his  closet,  where 
he  heard  only  the  dulcet  notes  of  peace,  but  amidst  the  tumuli 
of  war,  the  noise  and  bustle  of  camps,  and  the  distraction  of 
civil  feuds.  In  this  history  he  speaks  of  himself  in  the  third 
person,  and  it  is  remarkable  with  what  perfect  coolness,  self 
possesion  and  impartiality  he  records  his  own  actions.  To  tliK 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  163 

valuable  work,  we  are  indebted  for  much  of  the  information  we 
possess,  with  respect  to  the  early  history  of  Britain,  Gaul  and 
Germany,  and  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  respective  countries.  The  fame  of  Caesar  principally  rests 
upon  his  warlike  achievements — when  he  is  spoken  of,  or  allu- 
ded to,  it  is  generally  as  a  hero  and  a  general,  or  as  the  subverter 
of  Roman  liberty,  scarcely  ever  as  a  historian  and  accomplished 
orator — his  civil  virtues  and  talents  are  lost  in  the  blaze  of  his 
glory  as  a  military  chieftain.  Were  he  only  known  as  the  author 
of  the  "Commentaries,"  his  name  would  deserve  to  be  held  in 
veneration,  and  indeed,  so  anxious  was  Cagsar  for  his  literary 
fame,  that  when  he  was  near  being  lost  in  the  bay  of  Alexandria, 
he  swam  ashore  with  his  commentaries  in  one  hand  and  his  arms 
in  the  other.  Cresar  is  said  to  have  written  a  tragedy  entitled 
CEdepus,  founded  upon  events  in  the  history  of  that  royal  family 
of  Thebes,  whose  misfortunes  have  been  the  foundation  of  many 
tragedies  from  the  time  of  Sophocles  to  the  present.  Some- 
what associated  with  the  name  of  Caesar,  is  Hirtius,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  written  the  8th  book  of  the  "Wars  of  Gaul,"  and 
the  history  of  the  wars  in  Spain.  After  the  death  of  Cagsar  IIP 
was  made  consul,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Mutina. 

Cornelius  Nqpos,  another  historian  of  these  times,  was  born  at 
Hostilia,  a  town  situated  on  the  Po.  Attracted  and  encouraged 
by  the  munificence  of  Augustus  to  learned  men,  he  removed  to 
Rome,  where  he  enjoyed  the  favor  and  shared  the  patronage  of 
the  emperor.  He  is  said  to  have  written  several  historical 
works,  which  are  no  longer  extant.  His  lives  of  distinguished 
Greek  and  Roman  generals  and  statesmen  are  still  extant,  and 
if  they  have  not  the  popularity  of  the  lives  of  Plutarch,  they  are 
at  least  equal  for  elegance  of  style  and  perspicuity  of  narration, 
and  exhibit  a  faithful  epitome  of  the  principal  transactions  of 
the  respective  periods  spoken  of.  A  Roman  writer,  in  the  reign 
of  Theodosius,  A.  D.  380,  desirous  of  conciliating  the  favor  of 
the  emperor,  endeavored  to  rob  Nepos  of  the  honor  to  which  he 
was  entitled,  by  publishing  his  "Lives."  The  cheat,  however, 
was  soon  detected,  and  the  property  restored  to  its  right  owner. 

One  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the  times  which  we  are 
reviewing,  was  Titus  Livy.  He  was  a  native  of  Padua,  and  was 
born  about  50  years  before  Christ  and  died  17.  years  after.  His 
great  work  on  Roman  history,  which  has  rendered  his  name  in> 


I 


)64  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

mortal  in  the  annals  of  literature,  commenced  with  the  lounda 
tion  of  Rome,  and  was  brought  down  to  the  death  of  Drusus,  the 
grandson  of  Augustus.  It  was  divided  into  decades,  including 
one  hundred  and  forty  books,  of  which  are  extant  the  first,  third, 
fourth  and  part  of  the  fifth.  The  first  decade  comprises  a  period 
of  four  hundred  and  sixty  years,  the  third  eighteen  years  and 
the  fourth  twenty-three  years.  The  second  decade  is  entirely 
lost.  To  supply  the  chasm  occasioned  by  the  lost  books,  an 
epitome  of  Roman  history  has  been  compiled  which  is  usually 
incorporated  with  the  books  of  Livy.  On  this  work  he  was 
employed  upwards  of  twenty-two  years,  and  as  he  was  among 
the  number  of  those  literary  men,  who  were  peculiarly  favored 
by  Augustus,  he  enjoyed  every  opportunity  of  procuring  authen* 
tic  information,  by  consulting  the  public  records.  As  a  histo- 
rian, Livy  occupies  a  high  rank,  not  only  on  account  of  the  fide- 
lity of  his  narrative,  but  for  a  style  full  of  energy,  clear,  com- 
prehensive and  intelligible,  and  a  majesty  of  expression  superior 
to  any  of  his  contemporaries,  and  equalled  by  but  few  of  his  sue- 
cessors,  in  the  same  species  of  composition.  Quintillian,  the 
celebrated  rhetorician  and  critic,  entertained  the  highest  opinion 
of  Livy  as  a  writer,  and,  speaking  of  his  history,  says,  that  his 
narrative  is  perfectly  clear  and  singularly  agreeable;  that  the 
harangues  which  he  puts  into  the  mouths  of  his  principal  spea- 
kers, are  distinguished  by  a  peculiar  eloquence,  and  are  in  per- 
fect accordance  with  the  situations  and  circumstances,  under 
which  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  delivered,  and  that  he 
excels  in  pathetic  descriptions.  With  all  his  excellencies,  he 
had  his  defects,  the  most  grevious  of  which  is,  an  apparent  fond- 
ness for  the  marvellous,  which  induced  him  to  insert  accounts  of 
omens  and  prodigies,  at  that  time  very  frequent  to  the  eye  of 
superstition.  Such  accounts,  although  they  may  add  to  the  so- 
lemnity of  description,  certainly  diminish  the  dignity  of  history, 
and  although  they  may  be  in  accordance  with  the  general  belief 
of  an  ignorant  people,  they  subject  an  author  to  the  imputation 
of  being  too  credulous  and  superstitious.  The  fame  of  Livy 
spread  over  the  Roman  empire,  and  so  high  was  his  reputation, 
that  a  citizen  of  Gades  (now  Cadiz,)  visited  Rome  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  seeing  him.  St.  Jerome,  one  of  the  Christian  fathers, 
this  circumstance  remarks,  "that  it  was  trulv  wonde**- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  jg^ 

fui,  that  a  stranger  should  enter  Rome  in  search  of  any  thing 
but  Rome  itself." 

Patr.rculus  was  a  military  tribune,  and  served  several  years  in 
the  armies  of  Tiberius.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  of  which  only  a  fragment  remains,  embracing  the  period 
that  intervened  between  the  overthrow  of  Persius,  king  of  Mace- 
don,  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  years  before  Christ,  by  Plautus, 
a  Roman  general,  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  His  work  is  con- 
sidered as  candid  and  impartial,  until  he  comes  to  treat  of  those 
great  events  which  overturned  the  republic,  and  established  the 
throne  of  the  Caesars.  He  wrote  under  the  reign  of  the  tyrant 
Tiberius,  and  being  anxious  to  secure  the  favor  of  the  emperor, 
he  depreciates  the  characters  of  Cicero  and  Pompey  and  elevates 
their  rivals,  whilst  he  flatters  Tiberius  and  Sejanus  in  the  style 
of  the  slave  of  a  despot,  whose  very  frown  was  to  be  dreaded. 

The  lot  of  Tacitus  was  cast  in  more  favorable  times.  This 
most  celebrated  of  Roman  historians  was  born  in  the  reign  of 
Nero,  and  was  the  only  son  of  a  Roman  knight,  who  had  been 
governor  of  a  province  in  Belgic  Gaul.  Of  his  early  pursuits 
and  education  little  is  known;  it  is  supposed,  however,  that  he 
attended  the  school  of  Quintillian,  a  distinguished  rhetorician, 
and  received  from  him  instructions  in  oratory,  to  fit  himself  for 
the  bar,  at  that  time  a  situation  in  which  a  man  was  least  ex- 
posed to  the  malicious  tyranny  of  the  emperors.  Quintillian 
was  quickly  struck  with  the  extent  of  his  genius  and  talents, 
and  predicted  that  he  "would  deserve  and  acquire  the  admira- 
tion of  posterity,"  which  prophetic  declaration  has  been  re- 
markably fulfilled. 

It  was  a  fortunate  circumstance  for  Tacitus  and  the  world, 
that  his  infant  years  were  passed  under  the  reigns  of  the  most 
cruel  of  the  Roman  emperors,  and  before  his  great  talents  be- 
gan to  display  themselves.  Under  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  who 
patronised  and  protected  literary  merit,  the  foundation  of 
his  fortune  was  laid,  and  he  peaceably  pursued  those  studies, 
the  fruits  of  which  have  rendered  him  so  conspicuous.  Tacitus 
passed  through  the  several  subordinate  offices,  until  he  at- 
tained the  dignity  of  consul  on  the  death  of  Virginius,  in  the 
reign  of  Nerva. 

The  works  of  Tacitus  consist  of  his  "Roman  History,"  which 
begins  with  Galba  and  ends  with  Domitian ;  his  "Annals,"  which 


ItJti  -HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

begin  with  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  and  are  brought  down  nearly 
to  the  conclusion  of  the  reign  of  Nero,  of  which  only  two  com- 
plete books,  and  parts  of  two  others  remain;  his  "Manners  of 
the  Germans,"  "Life  of  Agricola"  and  "Dialogues  concerning 
oratory."  At  what  time  these  works  were  published,  is  uncer- 
tain ;  but  it  is  probable  it  was  during  the  reigns  of  Nero  and  Tra- 
jan. It  is  a  subject  of  much  regret,  that  the  historical  works  of 
so  distinguished  a  writer  should  have  come  to  us  so  incomplete, 
having  suffered  from  the  depredations  of  the  ignorant  barbarians 
who  overturned  the  Roman  empire,  and  who  set  no  value  upon 
any  other  quality  than  valor. 

As  an  historian,  he  is  faithful  and  impartial.  He  relates  things 
as  they  were,  in  a  style  energetic  and  dignified,  pure  and  classi- 
cal, worthy  the  brightest  period  of  Roman  literature.  He  nei- 
ther flattered  the  follies  nor  extenuated  the  vices  of  living  great 
men,  nor  misrepresented  the  characters  and  achievements  of  the 
mighty  dead.  Strict  justice  to  all  appears  to  have  been  his  gov- 
erning principle,  and  the  foundation  on  which  he  erected  the 
fabric  of  his  fame  as  an  historian.  His  life  of  Agricola  is  a  splen- 
did specimen  of  biographical  composition,  which  will  not  suffer 
by  a  comparison  with  the  best  production  of  Plutarch.  In  it  he 
celebrates  a  virtuous  Roman,  and  has  erected  a  proud  trophy  to 
the  memory  of  a  man  endeared  to  the  people,  as  well  by  his 
amiable,  gentle  and  virtuous  character,  as  by  his  victories  as  a 
general ;  and  who,  no  doubt,  fell  a  victim  to  the  jealousy  and 
suspicion  of  Domitian.  The  fame  of  Tacitus  is  not  confined  to 
his  celebrity  as  a  writer;  he  also  held  a  high  rank  as  an  orator. 
In  the  language  of  one  of  his  biographers,  "he  could  thunder 
and  lighten  in  his  discourse;  open  every  source  of  the  pathetic; 
draw  the  tear  of  compassion  and  mould  an  audience  according 
to  his  will  and  pleasure."  That  he  possessed  these  qualities  in 
a  high  degree,  we  may  justly  conclude,  from  the  eloquent  and 
pathetic  manner  in  which  he  has  detailed  some  of  the  events  of 
the  reigns  of  Tiberius  and  Nero. 

Quintus  Curtiusis  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
Vespasian.  By  some  critics  he  is  confounded  with  Curtius  Ru- 
/MS,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  and  atttained  the  dignity 
of  consul.  By  those  who  have  undertaken  to  rank  the  ancient 
historians  according  to  their  respective  merits,  he  is  placed  in 
*hr  first  cln?«,  but  who  HIP  r  do-orvedly.  is  very  questionable. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  i67 

His  fame,  however,  rests  upon  his  history  of  Alexander  the 
Great;  his  other  works,  whatever  they  may  have  been,  having 
been  lost.     This  work  was  written  in  ten  books,  of  which  the 
two  first,  and  part  of  the  fifth  and  sixth,  are  lost,  which  have  been 
supplied  by  a  modern  writer.     It  is  the  record  of  the  achieve- 
ments of  the  most  extraordinary  man  of  his  age,  who  was  as  re- 
markable for  the   rapidity  and  extent  of  his  conquests,  as  his 
boundless  ambition.     The  difficulty  of  an  enterprize  presented 
v  but  a  feeble  barrier  to  his  progress;  it  only  stimulated  him  the 
more  in  the  prosecution  of  his  designs.     He  was  brave,  liberal, 
and  a  patron  of  learning,  but  proud,  haughty,  and  enamored  of 
his  regal  dignity.     "Give  me  kings  for  competitors,"    said  he, 
"and  I  will  enter  the  lists  at  Olympia."     With  all  his  virtues,  he 
was  sometimes  cruel;  as  is  evinced  in  the  death  of  Calisthenes 
and  Clitus;  and  being  often  intoxicated  he  was  sometimes  led 
into  great  extravagancies,  as  in  setting  fire  to  the  palace  of  Per- 
sepolis.     Curtius,  in  his  style,  is  flowery  and  highly  ornamented, 
exhibiting,  perhaps,  more  of  the  decoration  of  the  rhetorician, 
than  the  sober  gravity  of  the  historian.     He  is,  nevertheless, 
entitled  to  the   merit  of  having  portrayed  the  character  of  his 
hero,  without  concealinghis  defects,  or  exaggerating  his  virtues. 
Suetonius  was  the  son  of  a  Roman  knight,  and  gained  some 
distinction  at  the  bar  during  the  reign  of  Trajan.     Having  at- 
tracted  the  notice   of  Adrian,  he  made  him  his  secretary,  but 
having  given  some  offence  to  the  emperor,  on  account  of  his 
want  of  attention  to  the  empress,  he  was  deprived  of  his  office 
and  banished  the  court.     Suetonius  employed  the  period  of  his 
banishment  in  study,  and  composed  several  historical  works  and 
treatises  on  the   games  and   spectacles  of  Greece,  besides  his 
"Lives  of  the  Twelve  Caesars,"  which  is  the  only  production  of 
his  pen  that  has  reached  our  times.     This  work  is  more  biogra- 
phical than  historical;  the  great  object  of  the  writer  seems  to 
be,  without  regard  to  the  order  of  events,  to  bring  together 
whatever  could  reflect  light  upon  the  characters  of  those,  whose 
lives  he  had  undertaken  to  portray,  omitting  nothing  in  which 
they  were  concerned.     He  is,  therefore,  very  exact  and  metho- 
dical in  his  details,  and,  judging  from  a  comparison  with  contem- 
porary authors,  he  has  executed  his  work  with  fidelity. 

Justin  was  an  historian  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Antoni- 
nus Pius,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  vears  after  Christ.     Hf 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 


wrote  an  abridgment  of  the  history  of  Trogus  Pomjjeius,\v\:io  lived 
about  41  years  before  Christ.  This  work,  comprised  in  forty-foin 
books,  embraces  the  history  of  the  Assyrian,  Grecian,  Roman 
and  Macedonian  empires;  the  greater  part  of  the  work,  howev- 
er, is  devoted  to  the  empire  of  Philip  and  his  successors.  It  is 
composed  in  a  pure  and  elegant  style,  and  is  interspersed  with 
many  judicious  reflections  on  the  great  and  important  events  de- 
tailed, and  to  it  we  are  indebted  for  many  historical  facts  with 
regard  to  the  Assyrian  and  Macedonian  monarchies,  not  to  be 
found  in  any  other  ancient  writer  now  extant. 

Arrian  was  born  at  Nicomedia,  a  city  of  Bythinia,  and  flou- 
rished under  Adrian  and  the  Antonines.  He  was  a  general  as 
well  as  a  philosopher  and  historian.  Having  been  appointed 
prefect  of  Cappadocia,  he  carried  on  the  Avar  with  success  against 
'the  AlaunL  and  Messagetae.  He  was  the  author  of  several  works, 
which  have  perished  in  common  with  a  thousand  other  works  ot 
ancient  literature;  he  is,  however,  advantageously  known  as  the 
author  of  the  history  of  the  "Expeditions  of  Alexander  the 
Great."  This  work  is  distinguished  for  that  candor  and  faithful 
detail  of  events,  that  should  always  mark  the  historian,  else  his- 
tories will  become  mere  fanciful  romances,  in  which  it  will  be 
impossible,  after  a  lapse  of  time,  to  separate  truth  from  fiction. 
An  instance  of  this  occurs  in  the  Cyropedia  of  Xenophon,  who 
has  so  blended  truth  with  fiction,  in  order  to  set  off  the  charac- 
ter of  his  favorite  hero,  that  it  is  now  a  matter  of  doubt,  whe- 
ther it  is  to  be  considered  as  a  true  history  of  the  life  of  Cyrus. 
or  as  a  "moral  romance,"  intended  to  exhibit  the  writer's  opinion 
of  what  a  monarch  ought  to  be.  It  appears  to  have  been  the 
object  of  Arrian  to  present  the  character  and  exploits  of  his 
hero  in  their  true  light,  divested  of  that  high  coloring  which 
too  often  casts  a  false  glare  about  the  great  men  of  the  earth. 
He  seems  to  have  consulted  the  best  authorities,  particularly 
those  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander.  On  account  of  his 
style,  he  has  been  called  another  Xenophon.  In  philosophy, 
Arrian  was  a  stoic;  he  collected  and  published  the  "Moral  Ma- 
nual," or  "Enchiridion"  of  Epictetus,  a  celebrated  philosopher 
of  the  school  of  Zeno,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Nero  and 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Adrian.  The  "Enchiridion,"  contains 
a  faithful  exposition  of  the  stoic  philosophy,  as  then  taught. 

Pausanias  was  another  Roman  historian  who  flourished  about 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  16B 

the  year  A.  D.  170.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Greece,  in  which 
he  did  not  confine  himself  to  military  and  political  history;  but 
entered  into  details  with  regard  to  the  geography  and  antiquities 
of  each  state  of  Greece  respectively.  This  history  was  compri- 
sed in  ten  books,  and  is  still  extant.  It  is  regarded  as  a  valuable 
-addition  to  the  history  of  the  times  of  which  he  speaks,  and  the 
countries  he  describes.* 


CHAPTER  XL 

Literature  of  the  Romans.  Roman  orators  and  miscellaneous  writers : 
Hortensius,  Cicero,  Quintillian,  Pliny  the  elder,  Pliny  the  younger ^ 
Lucian,  Plutarch. 

As  we  remarked  in  a  former  chapter,  the  Greeks  were  early 
distinguished  for  their  cultivation  of  the  art  of  oratory,  and  for 
their  displays  of  eloquence,  bold,  nervous  and  animated.  The 
peculiar  form  of  their  government,  particularly  that  of  Athens, 
favored  the  improvement  of  this  art,  and  as  all  laws,  and  every 
thing  relating  to  public  matters,  were  generally  discussed  in  the 
assemblies  of  the  people,  where  all  had  a  voice,  it  became  neces- 
sary that  instructions  in  oratory  should  form  a  part  of  their  sys- 
tem of  education.  Their  orators  had  an  unbounded  influence, 
directing  and  controlling  every  public  measure ;  indeed,  no  mea- 
sure of  importance  was  decided  without  them.  We  find,  there- 
fore, that  schools  were  early  established  for  the  express  purpose 
of  teaching  the  rules  necessary  to  form  an  accomplished  ora- 
tor. Throughout  all  Greece,  (with  the  exception  of  Lacede- 
mon,  where  "much  speaking"  was  condemned,)  the  talent  of 
speaking  in  public  with  grace  and  eloquence,  was  the  most  im- 
portant, next  to  military  talents,  a  citizen  could  possess,  and  was 
certain  to  lead  him  to  distinction. 

Oratory,  as  an  art,  was  not  cultivated  in  Rome  at  so  early  a 
period  as  in  Greece ;  she  had,  however,  her  public  speakers  in 
the  early  ages  of  the  republic,  and  in  later  times  some  of  her 

*  Caesar's  Com.; Baker's  Livy.;  Adams'  Rom.  Ant.;  Rennet's  Rom.  Ant.;  Plutarch's 
Lives;  Murphy's  Tac. ;  Ferguson's  Rome;  Priestley's  Lee. ;  Enf.  Hist,  of  Phil. ;  Cours 
fa  Lit.  par  Lajiarpe,  &c. 

v    32 


Iftf  lllSTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

orators  attained  to  a  proud  distinction,  rivaling,  if  not  surpass 
ing  the  most  celebrated  among  the  Grecians.  The  relation  of 
patron  and  client,  which  existed  between  the  Patricians  and  Ple- 
beians, afforded  opportunities  for  the  former  to  appear  as  advo* 
cates  in  the  defence  of  the  latter,  and  thus  not  only  to  cement 
more  closely  the  union  which  existed,  but  also  to  make  them- 
selves known  to  the  people  in  general,  and  strengthen  their  po- 
pularity. The  places  where  these  displays  of  forensic  eloquence 
were  exhibited,  were  generally  the  forum,  before  the  tribunal 
of  the  praetor,  the  centumviri  and  other  magistrates,  and  in  the 
presence  of  the  assembled  people.  These  displays,  however, 
were  more  the  result  of  momentary  excitement,  than  of  studied 
preparation.  In  them  they  were  confined  by  no  rules;  they 
were  ignorant  of  the  division  of  the  oration  into  the  exordium, 
the  narration  or  explanation,  and  the  peroration ;  and  it  was  not 
until  the  Greek  rhetoricians  opened  their  schools,  that  they  laid 
aside  their  natural  and  unstudied  effusions,  for  the  studied  regu- 
larity and  artificial  manner  of  the  schools. 

The  establishment  of  schools  of  rhetoric,  soon  gave  a  new  im- 
pulse to  oratory,  and  its  rules  became  subjects  of  careful  stud\ 
and  attention.  As  these  establishments  acquired  celebrity,  the 
most  distinguished  of  the  Roman  youth  entered  themselves  as 
disciples.  Among  the  rest  we  find  Tiberius  and  Cciius  Gracchus, 
who  were  distinguished  as  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  Scipios, 
and  for  their  popular  eloquence  and  seditious  practices — prac- 
tices which,  notwithstanding  their  uncommon  popularity  with 
the  people,  conducted  them  to  an  untimely  and  violent  end.  In- 
stead of  dying  gloriously  on  the  field  of  battle,  in  a  manner  wor- 
thy of  their  great  ancestors,  they  fell  by  the  hand  of  the  assassin. 
To  bring  to  view  the  various  persons  who,  after  this  period,  dis- 
tinguished themselves  as  orators,  we  should  be  led  greatly  be- 
yond our  limits;  we  shall,  therefore,  content  ourselves  with  a 
brief  notice  of  Hortensius  and  Cicero,  two  of  those  who  were  most 
celebrated,  when  oratory  had  attained  its  highest  point  of  excel 
lence  in  Rome. 

Hortensius  was  born  113  years  before  Christ,  and  died  at  Ihf 
age  of  sixty-three  years.  After  having  studied  in  the  schools  oi 
rhetoric,  he  made  his  first  appearance  as  a  public  speaker  in  the 
Roman  forum,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  and  even  at  that  early  age 
acquired  much  fame.  When  Cicero  entered  on  the  arena  of 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


171 


ibrensic  oratory,  Hortensius  was  in  the  height  of  his  fame,  and  no 
©ne  had  been  daring  enough  to  enter  the  lists  as  his  competitor* 
Cicero,  notwithstanding  their  rivalship,  with  that  generosity  that 
belongs  to  great  minds,  speaks  of  him  as  an  orator  in  high  terms, 
and  says  that  he  sustained  his  reputation  to  the  end.  Quin- 
tillian  disssents  from  this  opinion  of  Cicero,  and  considers  his 
commendations  as  undeserved;  it  should,  however,  be  borne  in 
mind,  when  weighing  these  opposite  opinions,  that  Cicero  was 
the  contemporary  of  Hortensius,  and  Quintillian  flourished  near 
a  century  after.  We  think,  therefore,  that  more  confidence 
ought  to  be  placed  upon  the  judgment  of  one  who  was  contem- 
porary, and  had  not  only  daily  opportunities  of  witnessing  his 
powers,  but  who  had  also  felt  their  force.  The  manner  of  Hor- 
tensius, in  his  delivery,  was  censured  by  some  as  being  better 
suited  to  the  theatre'than  the  tribunals  of  justice,  and  hence  he 
received  the  appellation  of  Dionysia,  after  a  celebrated  dancer 
of  the  time.  None  of  his  orations  are  extant. 

Marcus  Tullius  Cicero  was  born  at  Arpinum,  a  town  of  the 
Volsci,  celebrated  also  as  the  birthplace  of  Marius.  During 
his  childhood  he  is  said  to  have  given  strong  testimony  of  supe- 
rior talents,  and  anticipations  of  future  promise.  He  studied 
philosophy  and  rhetoric  under  Philo  of  Laressa,  a  platonic  phi- 
losopher, held  in  high  esteem  by  the  Romans.  In  his  eighteenth 
year  he  commenced  the  study  of  law  under  Mucius  Sccevola,  dis- 
tinguished for  his  skill  and  knowledge  in  the  civil  law.  He 
made  his  first  appearance  as  a  public  speaker,  at  twenty-six 
years  of  age,  in  defence  of  Roscius,  against  the  accusation  of 
Scylla.  Soon  after,  under  the  plea  of  ill  health,  but  really 
through  fear  of  Scylla,  he  left  Rome  and  visited  Athens,  where 
he  attended  the  several  schools  of  philosophy.  Leaving  Athens, 
he  visited  Asia,  where  he  availed  himself  of  the  instructions  of 
Xenocles  of  Adramythum,  a  celebrated  rhetorician,  and  at 
Rhodes  studied  under  Apollonius,  another  rhetorician  of  dis- 
tinction, who  subsequently  opened  a  school  at  Rome.  Whilst 
under  the  instructions  of  Apollonius,  it  is  related  of  Cicero,  that 
his  master  not  understanding  the  Latin  language,  desired  him  to 
declaim  in  Greek,  which  he  done  with  so  much  effect,  that  Apol- 
lonius exclaimed,  "As  for  you,  Cicero,  I  praise  and  admire  you ; 
but  I  am  concerned  for  the  fate  of  Greece.  She  had  nothing 
left  her  but  the  glory  of  her  eloquence  and  erudition,  and  voy 


172  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

are  carrying  that  too  to  Rome."*  On  his  return  to  Rome,  he 
applied  himself  with  remarkable  diligence  to  the  study  of  orato- 
ry, and  soon  removed  the  prejudice  that  had  heen  excited  against 
him,  that  he  was  better  fitted  for  the  grave  pursuits  of  philoso- 
phy, than  the  active  duties  of  life.  In  the  year  of  the  city  691, 
he  was  chosen  consul,  and  obtained  immortal  honor  by  his  bold 
and  successful  opposition  to  the  conspiracy  of  the  dissolute  and 
desperate  Cataline,  on  which  occasion  the  glorious  title  of  "Fa- 
ther of  his  country"  was  conferred  upon  him,  by  the  almost  una- 
nimous consent  of  the  nation. 

No  one,  except  Demosthenes,  has  ever  attained  the  high  cha- 
racter of  Cicero,  as  an  accomplished  orator.  These  two  bril- 
liant lights  of  ancient  eloquence,  are  still  held  forth  as  beacons  to 
guide  the  youthful  candidates  to  the  wished-for  goal.  The  elo- 
quence of  Demosthenes  was  of  a  character  different  from  that  of 
Cicero.  The  orations  of  the  former  were  delivered  in  the  as- 
semblies of  the  people ;  those  of  the  latter  in  the  senate  house, 
in  the  presence  of  the  conscript  fathers,  or  in  the  forum,  before 
the  tribunals  of  justice;  ^  The  eloquence  of  Demosthenes  was 
directed  to  rouse  and  influence  the  passions  of  a  whole  people, 
on  subjects  in  which  the  interests  of  a*  whole  people  were  con- 
cerned, and  in  which  all  had  a  voice ;  that  of  Cicero  was  employ- 
ed to  convince  the  judgment  of  a  limited  number  of  individuals, 
who  were  not  as  likely  to  be  swayed  by  appeals  to  the  feelings, 
as  a  mixed  multitude ;  therefore,  the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes 
was  more  declamatory  and  impassioned ;  that  of  Cicero  more 
sober  and  discreet. 

The  fame  of  Cicero,  as  an  orator,  appears  to  be  established 
on  such  solid  foundation,  that  it  will  endure  until 

The  great  globe  itself 

And  all  which  it  inherits  shall  dissolve. 

His  orations  are  all  composed  with  much  art,  and  according 
to  rhetorical  rules.  In  his  exordiums  he  carefully  attends  to  all 
the  requisites  for  gaining  the  attention  of  his  audience,  and  in 
his  narrations  his  arguments  are  all  arranged  in  such  a  masterly 
manner,  that  they  could  scarcely  fail  of  producing  the  desired 
result.  The  powerful  effect  of  his  eloquence  in  no  instance  ap- 

*"  Plut.  Life  of  Cicero- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 


173 


pears  to  us  to  have  been  more  apparent,  than  in  his  orations 
against  Cataline,  when,  although  his  situation  was  critical  and 
required  much  circumspection  and  discretion,  he  seems  to  have 
laid  aside  the  natural  timidity  of  his  character,  and  attacked  the 
desperate  conspirator  with  such  boldness,  that  he  was  exposed 
to  the  daggers  of  two  hired  assassins  of  Cataline.  This  great 
man  was  involved  in  the  proscription  under  the  triumvirate,  and 
was  sacrificed  to  the  vengeance  of  Anthony. 

In  addition  to  his  "Orations,"  he  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  na- 
ture of  the  Gods;"  the  "Tusculan  questions;"  "Dialogues  on 
old  age;"  on  "Moial  offices;"  "On  laws,"  and  several  other  works 
on  "Rhetoric  and  oratory." 

After  the  subversion  of  the  republic,  and  the  establishment  of 
imperial  rule,  and  particularly  during  the  inglorious  reigns  of 
the  tyrannical  and  blood-thirsty  successors  of  Augustus,  the 
schools  of  rhetoric  declined,  and  oratory  was  confined  to  simple 
pleadings  at  the  bar.  Contemplating  the  fallen  and  degraded 
state  of  his  favorite  art,  Quintillian  attempted  to  revive  its  faded 
glory  and  restore  it  to  its  former  splendor.  Quintillian  was  a 
native  of  Spain;  he  was  born  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  and  pro- 
bably first  visited  the  capital  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  reign 
of  Nero.  Talents  like  his,  could  not  long  remain  concealed, 
and  he  soon  acquired  considerable  reputation  at  the  bar,  and 
subsequently  attained  the  honors  of  the  consulship.  To  rescue 
the  art  of  rhetoric  from  the  degradation  into  which  it  had  fallen 
inconsequence  of  the  despotic  and  arbitrary  nature  of  the  gov- 
ernment, in  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  Quintillian  opened  a  school, 
in  which  rhetoric  was  taught  according  to  certain  rules,  and,  in 
addition  to  the  tuition  fees  received  from  his  pupils,  he  obtained 
a  stated  salary  from  the  public  treasury,  the  first  ever  granted 
to  a  public  teacher;  this  circumstance  serves  to  show  in  what 
estimation  his  learning  and  talents  were  held  by  the  ruler  of  the 
empire.  To  this  useful  and  honorable,  though  laborious,  em- 
ployment, he  devoted  twenty  years,  and,  under  his  instructions 
we  find  many  became  distinguished  public  speakers;  amongst 
others, the  historian  Tacitus  and  the  younger  Pliny.  He  retired 
from  public  life  in  the  reign  of  Domitian;  his  leisure  was  still 
employed  in  literary  studies,  and  in  preparing,  for  the  benefit  of 
posterity,  a  treatise  on  the  causes  of  the  corruption  of  eloquence, 
and  that  celebrated  system  of  rhetoric,  which  is  still  studied  it* 


574  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

our  institutions  of  learning,  and  is  the  most  complete  systenvof 
ancient  rules  on  that  subject  now  extant.  The  latter  work  is 
divided  into  twelve  books.  In  it  he  points  out  with  great  care, 
that  system  of  education  he  considers  necessary  to  constitute  an 
accomplished  orator — not  a  mere  declaimer,  who  thinks  that 
eloquence  consists  in  stringing  together  a  number  of  high  sound- 
ing words.  His  great  object  was  to  exhibit  rules  to  form  the 
eloquent  and  argumentative  orator — the  logician  as  well  as  rhe- 
torician. To  attain  this  object,  he  even  begins  with  the  infant 
in  his  cradle,  and  conducts  him  through  a  certain  course  of  stu- 
dy, until  his  faculties  are  fully  developed,  and  are  capable  of 
full  and  vigorous  exercise  in  that  field  in  which  they  are  to  be 
exerted.  The  youthful  orators  of  the  present  day  seem  averse 
to  established  rules,  and,  giving  way  to  a  natural  ardor,  become 
too  much  addicted  to  that  declamatory  style  which  belongs  not 
to  true  oratory:  high  sounding  epithets,  a  flowing  diction,  and 
beautifully  rounded  periods,  appear  to  strike  their  imaginations 
with  more  force,  than  that  correctness  of  arrangement,  energy 
and  boldness  of  style  and  closeness  of  reasoning,  recommended 
by  Quintillian.  To  such  the  works  of  Quintillian  will  be  found 
highly  useful;  and  were  they  studied  with  more  care,  after  the 
youthful  orator  has  left  the  walls  of  a  college,  we  would  not  wit- 
ness so  many  violations  of  rhetorical  rules,  and  declamation 
would  soon  give  place  to  a  chaste  and  manly  style  of  oratory. 
"Genius,"  says  the  Abb6  Maury,  "needs  to  be  guided  in  its  pro- 
gress, and  the  curb  which  preserves  it  from  wandering,  restrains 
by  salutary  checks,  and  renders  it  the  greatest  service*  It  is 
thus  that  genius  becomes  strengthened  and  increased,  when  it 
proceeds  under  the  guidance  of  reason  and  judgment."  The 
close  of  Quintillian's  life  was  embittered  by  the  loss  of  his  wife 
and  his  two  sons,  and  notwithstanding  imperial  favor  and  the 
success  of  his  writings,  he  was  reduced  to  indigence,  from  which 
he  was  relieved  by  the  younger  Pliny.  He  died  A.  D.  95. 

In  the  whole  catalogue  of  literary  men  among  the  ancient^ 
we  know  none  more  worthy  of  remembrance  than  the  elder  and 
younger  Pliny.  Pliny  the  elder  was  born  at  Verona,  in  the  reign 
of  Tiberius  A.  D.  23.  Having  distinguished  himself  as  a  sol- 
dier, he  was  made  governor  of  Spain,  the  duties  of  which  he 
faithfully  and  diligently  discharged.  He  was  remarkable  for 
his  studious  habits,  even  when  engaged  in  the  turmoils  and 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  17£ 

perplexities  of  public  business.  So  earnestly  was  he  devoted 
to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  that  even  at  his  meals  one  of 
his  servants  read  to  him,  and  when  in  the  bath,  his  active  mind 
dictated  to  an  amanuensis.  Pliny  was  particularly  devoted  to 
the  study  and  investigation  of  subjects  of  natural  history,  and 
to  his  love  for  natural  science  he  fell  a  victim.  Being  at  Mise- 
num  A.  D.  79,  where  he  commanded  a  fleet,  he  was  suddenly 
surprised  by  a  violent  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius.  Impelled 
by  curiosity  to  examine  more  nearly  this  great  phenomenon,  he 
immediately  set  sail  for  the  mountain,  and  landing  on  the  coast, 
he  found  it  deserted  by  the  inhabitants;  he  determined,  how- 
ever, to  remain  during  the  night,  the  better  to  observe  the  erup- 
tion. As  the  eruption  increased,  and  the  fire  approached  where 
he  was,  he  endeavored  to  make  his  escape,  but  was  unfortunately 
suffocated  by  the  thick  vapor  that  surrounded  him.  At  the 
time  of  his  death,  he  was  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age.  Of 
the  various  works  of  which  he  was  the  author,  none  remain  but 
his  works  on  natural  history,  in  thirty-seven  books.  It  treats  of 
the  various  phenomena  of  the  natural  world,  of  earthquakes, 
eclipses,  meteors,  the  mineral,  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms, 
and  is  highly  valuable  for  the  innumerable  facts  it  contains,  and 
as  showing  the  state  of  natural  science  at  the  time  in  which  lie 
lived — a  science  which  has  obtained,  by  the  diligent  labors  and 
investigations  of  modern  naturalists,  a  high  rank  in  some  of  our 
seats  of  learning,  and  which  ought  to  be  taught  in  all. 

The  Younger  Pliny  was  the  nephew  of  Pliny  the  Elder,  and 
was  born  at  Como,  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  A.  D.  62.  He  was  the 
contemporary  and  intimate  friend  of  the  historian  Tacitus,  and 
with  him  attended  the  lectures  of  Quintillian  on  rhetoric  and 
oratory.  In  the  reign  of  Domitian,  he  filled  the  several  offices 
of  questor,  tribune  of  the  people  and  prastor.  Under  Trajan  he 
was  appointed  pro-consul  of  Bithynia,  in  which  situation  he  ren- 
dered essential  service  to  the  cause  of  Christianity,  by  putting  » 
stop  to  the  persecution  of  the  Christians,  declaring  to  the  emperor, 
that  they  were  a  meek  and  inoffensive  set  of  men,  of  pure  and 
innocent  morals,  who  bound  themselves  by  solemn  oaths  to  ab- 
stain from  vice.  Attached,  from  policy  or  conviction,  to  the 
pagan  worship,  Pliny  regarded  the  chfistians  as  mistaken  en- 
thusiasts, who  would  be  sooner  converted  from  what  he  consid- 
ered the  "error  of  their  ways,"  by  gentle  than  by  violent  means. 


17G  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Influenced  by  such  feelings,  and  by  a  generous  spirit  of  humanity ? 
he  used  his  utmost  efforts  to  turn  aside  the  arrows  of  persecu- 
tion, and  stay  the  effusion  of  Christian  blood,  not  only  by  his  rep- 
resentations to  the  emperor,  but  by  virtue  of  his  office  of  pro- 
consul. For  his  benevolent  and  successful  exertions,  his  name 
deserves  to  be  held  in  grateful  remembrance  by  the  Christian 
world.  Pliny  wrote  the  history  of  his  own  times,  which  is  lost; 
he  is  also  said  to  have  been  a  poet,  but  of  his  poetical  talents  we 
have  no  specimens  by  which  to  form  a  judgment.  Of  all  his 
writings,  nothing  is  at  present  extant  but  his  panegyric  on  the 
emperor  Trajan  and  his  letters,  in  ten  books.  Few  works  of  the 
same  description  deserve  higher  commendations  than  his  epis- 
tles ;  they  are  perfect  models  of  that  species  of  composition,  and 
are  remarkable  for  that  easy  and  familiar,  yet  graceful  style, 
which  form  the  charm  of  epistolary  writing.  Besides  their 
merit,  regarded  merely  in  a  literary  point  of  view,  they  contain 
many  curious  and  interesting  facts,  concerning  the  history  of  the 
limes,  and  anecdotes  of  individuals  who  have  made  prominent 
figures  in  Roman  history.  The  English  reader  h  under  many 
obligations  to  Melemoth  for  his  elegant  and  spirited  translation  of 
these  celebrated  letters.  Pliny  died  in  the  52d  year  of  his  age, 
A.  D.  113. 

Lucian  was  a  celebrated  writer  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
the  Antonines,  and  was  a  native  of  Samosata,  a  town  of  Syria, 
near  the  Euphrates.  Like  many  others  who  have  risen  to  dis- 
tinction, as  warriors,  statesmen  and  men  of  letters,  he  was  born 
of  parents  of  humble  rank  in  society  and  in  narrow  circumstan- 
ces. To  his  very  poverty  may  be  attributed  the  distinction  he 
attained  in  the  learned  world.  Had  the  coffers  of  his  father 
overflowed  with  wealth,  he  might  have  rioted  in  pleasure,  and 
his  talents  would  probably  have  remained  concealed  for  want  of 
some  inducement  to  call  them  into  exercise.  Early  in  life,  how- 
ever, disliking  the  profession  for  which  his  father  designed  him, 
he  was  thrown  upon  the  world  with  nothing  but  his  own  genius 
and  talents  to  conduct  him  through  its  various  difficulties.  His 
peculiar  powers  being  thus  called  into  action,  by  a  careful  and 
diligent  cultivation,  they  ultimately  conducted  him  to  honor  and 
fame.  It  is  thus  at  the  present  day;  the  greater  number  of  those 
who  are  distinguished  in  public  life,  when  the  road  to  prefer- 
ment is  not  obstructed  by  privileged  classes,  are  those  who  hav^ 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  |~7 

rirtun  horn  obscurity,  and  have  made  their  way  by  the  mere  force 
of  their  own  talents.  Lucian  was,  early  in  life,  bound  to  one 
of  his  uncles,  who  was  a  statuary;  but,  having  no  taste  for 
the  profession,  or  being  unfortunate  in  his  first  attempts  in  the 
art,  he  left  his  uncle,  and  determined  to  turn  his  attention  to 
some  other  employment  more  consonant  with  the  bent  of  his 
genius.  In  those  times,  dreams  and  omens  had  a  great  effect 
upon  the  most  powerful  as  well  as  the  weakest  minds — the  wise 
as  well  as  the  ignorant,  were  influenced  by  them,  although  in 
different  degrees.  Lucian  having  had  a  dream,  in  which  a  figure 
representing  learning  appeared  before  him,  in  an  enouraging 
attitude,  and  beckoned  him  to  approach  the  temple  of  fame,  he 
removed  to  Antioch,  where  he  engaged  with  some  success  in  the 
profession  of  an  advocate;  but  growing  tired  of  the  profession, 
he  determined  to  pursue  the  study  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy, 
rind  afterwards  give  instructions  in  the  former  as  he  travelled 
through  Gaul,  Spain  and  Greece.  As  a  philosopher,  his  creed 
seems  to  have  been  made  up  of  all  the  existing  sects,  which  he 
studied  and  examined  with  the  care  of  one  who  was  in  search  of 
information. 

Lucian  enjoyed  the  peculiar  favor  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  by 
whom  he  was  appointed  register  to  the  Roman  governor  of 
Egyptian  office  of  honor  and  profit.  The .  friendship  and  pro- 
tection of  such  a  man  as  Anrelius,  is  an  evidence  of  the  high  esti- 
mation in  which  he  was  held.  The  works  of  Lucian  are  written 
in  the  Attic,  the  purest  of  the  Grecian  dialects,  and  are  not  only 
composed  in  a  style  easy,  elegant  and  animated,  but  abound  in 
that  attic  salt,  which  gives  so  keen  an  edge  to  his  satires.  Many 
of  the  productions  of  Lucian  are  entirely  lost;  the  greater  part 
of  those  extant  consist  of  dialogues.  He  had  a  peculiar  turn  of 
mind  for  satire,  which  led  him  to  censure  unjustly,  some  of  the 
most  illustrious  men  of  whom  antiquity  can  boast.  Even  the 
great  Socrates  did  not  escape  the  malice  of  his  pen,  nor  di<i  the 
pure  doctrines  of  Christianity,  which  were  then  making  consid- 
erable progress,  and  were  soon  to  become  the  religion  of  the 
empire.  He  appears  to  have  made  but  few  inquiries  on  the 
subject  of  Christianity,  and  to  have  entirely  mistaken  the  nature 
and  tendency  of  that  religion  which  has  since  blessed  and  en- 
lightened millions  of  the  human  race,  and  will  continue  in  its 
onward  march,  until  the  whole  world  shall  be  blessed  by  its 

23  *H  *     ^JT 


278  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

benignant  influence.  Lucian  died  in  the  ninetieth  year  of  hi& 
age,  A.  D.  180.  The  story  of  his  being  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs, 
in  consequence  of  his  ridiculing  the  Christian  religion,  is  one  of 
those  ridiculous  fables  invented  in  after  times  of  ignorance  and 
superstition,  for  the  purpose  of  casting  an  odium  upon  his  char- 
acter. 

The  name  of  Plutarch  is  familiar  to  all  on  account  of  his  lives 
of  illustrious  men  of  antiquity.  He  was  a  native  of  Cheronea? 
in  Boaotia,  a  country  celebrated  for  the  dulness  of  its  inhabitants, 
yet  giving  birth  to  Hesiod,  Pindar  and  Plutarch,  three  names, 
without  mentioning  others,  not  only  sufficient  to  redeem  the 
character  of  any  country,  but  to  place  it  high  upon  the  list  of 
fame.  Plutarch  flourished  from  the  time  of  Nero  to  that  of 
Adrian.  He  was  instructed  in  philosophy  by  Ammonius,  a 
teacher  of  celebrity  at  Delphi.  In  search  of  knowledge,  he 
afterwards  travelled  into  Egypt,  and  trod  the  classic  ground  of 
Greece.  He  subsequently  opened  a  school  at  Rome,  which  was 
much  frequented,  in  consequence  of  the  reputation  he  had  even 
then  obtained.  At  Rome  he  was  patronised  by  the  emperor 
Trajan,  who  conferred  upon  him  the  dignity  of  consul,  and  ap- 
pointed him  governor  of  Illyricum.  Notwithstanding  his  civil 
occupations,  he  still  found  leisure  to  devote  to  the  pursuits  of 
literature  and  the  composition  of  works  on  various  subjects. 
On  the  death  of  Trajan,  he  returned  to  his  native  place,  where 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  days,  closely  applying  himself  to 
study,  and  enjoying  the  respect  and  esteem  of  his  fellow-citizens. 
He  died  about  the  year  A.  D.  130,  at  an  advanced  age. 

Many  of  the  writings  of  Plutarch  have  perished.  The  most 
valuable  of  those  extant,  and  those  upon  which  his  fame  rests, 
are  his  lives  of  illustrious  men,  still  admired  as  models  of  bio- 
graphical composition.  In  his  "Lives,"  it  appears  to  have  been 
his  object,  not  to  surround  his  heroes  with  a  false  glare,  thu& 
concealing  the  defects  of  their  character,  but  to  exhibit  them  in 
their  true  light,  whether  as  statesmen,  warriors  or  philosophers. 
His  historical  facts  are  detailed  with  fidelity  and  precision,  and 
in  his  delineation  of  character  he  is  remarkably  impartial,  par- 
ticularly when  he  compares  the  heroes  of  Greece  and  Rome 
Although  the  nice  and  observing  eye  of  criticism,  may  observe  a 
leaning  in  favor  of  the  Grecian,  yet  it  is  evident  that  the  great 
object  of  the  writer  is,  to  execute  what  he  has  undertaken,  with 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  179 


au  impartial  hand,  however  the  prejudices  of  country  might 
bias  his  judgment* 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Rise  and  progress  of  philosophy  at  Rome,  to  the  death  of  Marcus 
Aurelius. 

ALTHOUGH  renowned  and  illustrious  in  the  civil  and  milita- 
ry annals  of  the  world,  and  prolific  in  poets,  historians  and  ora- 
tors, who  have  shed  a  brilliant  light  upon  her  history,  Rome  did 
not  produce  a  single  philosopher,  who  was  conspicuous  for  bold- 
ness and  originality,  in  the  wide  field  of  philosophic  research 
and  speculation.  She  nafl  none  who  could  come  in  competition 
with  that  host  of  eminent  men,  who,  in  the  porticos,  groves  and 
gardens  of  Athens,  investigated  and  explained  the  wonderful 
works  of  nature,  and  taught  a  sublime  system  of  morals,  to 
crowds  of  attentive  and  admiring  disciples.  It  is  true,  that 
some  writers,  in  their  zeal  to  advance  the  Roman  character  in 
all  things,  as  well  in  science  as  in  arms,  have  carried  back  the 
history  of  philosophy  to  the  time  of  Nwna,  and  have  not  only 
placed  him  in  the  list  of  philosophers,  but  have  considered  him 
as  the  first  Roman  entitled  to  this  distinguished  appellation. 
What  his  claims  may  have  been,  and  what  were  his  peculiar  me- 
rits, it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  ascertain,  as  all  his  works, 
which  could  have  thrown  any  light  upon  the  subject,  were  bu- 
ried with  him,  and  have  consequently  perished.  Without  at- 
tempting to  detract  from  the  fame  of  Numa,  we  are  inclined  to 
the  belief,  that  his  doctrines  are  not  much  superior  to  those  of 
many  other  benefactors  of  the  human  family,  unless  his  talents, 
as  a  legislator,  and  acquirements  in  civil  polity,  presuppose  an 
acquaintance  with  the  principles  of  philosophy.  His  claims  to 
the  character  of  a  legislator,  whose  object  was  to  improve  the 
condition  of  his  subjects,  are  not  so  equivocal ;  they  are  more 
clearly  and  comprehensively  displayed  in  the  wise  regulations 

*  Plut.  Lives;  Mid.  Cic.;  Quin.  Ins.;  Melmoth's  Pliny;  Lem.  Class.  Die.;  Edin 
Ency ;  Abbe  Mauy  on  Elo.;  Fenelon  dia  on  Ora. :  Cour?  de  Lit.  par  Laharpe,&c. 


180 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


and  excellent  institutions  he  adopted  for  the  government  of  a 
people,  rude  and  barbarous,  and  which  were  delivered  with  the 
imposing  circumstances  and  powerful  effect,  that  attend  the  pro- 
mulgation of  laws  sanctioned  by  a  divinity.  These  laws  and 
regulations,  we  consider  rather  as  the  result  of  the  reflections 
of  a  sound  and  vigorous  mind,  strictly  disciplined,  than  of  philo- 
sophical speculation  and  research. 

The  rise  of  philosophy  at  Rome,  may  be  more  correctly  dated 
from  about  the  year  156  before  Christ,  wrhen  Carncades^  the  Aca- 
demic, Di ogenes -'the  Stoic,  and  Critolaus,  the  Peripatetic,  visited 
the  city,  and  communicated  to  the  Roman  youth  a  taste  for  phi- 
losophical studies  and  pursuits,  and  an  earnest  desire  to  be  in- 
structed in  Grecian  literature,  of  which  they  were  then  almost 
entirely  ignorant.  Whatever  system  of  philosophy  had  been 
taught  by  Numa,  had  long  been  forgotten,  and  the  minds  of  men 
were,  therefore,  more  disposed*  to  receive  the  new  doctrines,  and 
more  likely  to  be  impressed  by  th£ni<*^Prieir  wisdom  and  elo- 
quence soon  gained  their  attention  and  disciples,  notwithstand- 
ing the  opposition  of  Cato  the  censor,  who  was  so  excited  against 
them,  as  to  procure  a  decree  of  the  senate,  which  caused  their 
removal  from  Rome,  and  a  few  years  after,  the  censors,  in  the 
plenitude  of  their  power  and  authority,  issued  an  edict,  setting 
forth,  that  "whereas  certain  men  have  instituted  a  new  kind  of 
learning,  and  opened  schools  in  which  young  men  trifle  away 
their  time,  day  after  day,  we,  judging  this  innovation  to  be  in- 
consistent with  the  purpose  for  which  our  ancestors  established 
schools,  contrary  to  ancient  custom,  and  injurious  to  our  youth, 
do  hereby  warn  both  those  who  keep  those  schools,  and  those 
who  frequent  them,  that  they  are  herein  acting  contrary  to  our 
pleasure."  This  edict  was  rigorously  enforced  and  the  schools 
shut,  and  having  accomplished  the  immediate  design  of  its  enact- 
ment, that  of  closing  the  schools  then  in  existence,  it  lay  dormant 
for  many  years  after,  but  was  again  revived  about  91  years  be- 
fore Christ,  when  other  schools  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  were 
about  to  be  opened.  Notwithstanding  the  decrees  of  the  cen- 
sors, philosophy  gained  some  strength;  some  of  the  most  distin- 
guished of  the  Roman  youth  embraced  the  new  doctrines  and 
cultivated  them  with  an  assiduity  becoming  so  important  an  ob- 
ject, as  the  improvement  of  their  mental  powers.  Among  those 
who  wore  particularly  distinguished  for  their  ardor  in  the  pur- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^-P  181 

>uit  oi  knowledge,  were  Scipio  Africanus,  Lelius,  Furiu?,  Quin- 
tius  Tubero,  a  nephew  of  Scipio,  and  the  consul  Lucullus. 
They  did  not  attach  themselves  to  any  particular  sect,  but  exa- 
mined and  studied  with  care  the  systems  of  all,  so  that  they  made 
the  principles  and  doctrines  of  each,  subservient  to  their  subse.- 
quent  advancement  in  civil  and  military  life.  Lucullus,  in  or- 
der to  promote  a  taste  for  learning  and  philosophy,  made  a  large 
collection  of  valuable  books,  and  established  schools,  to  which 
he  invited  learned  men  of  whatever  sect,  and  he  himself  often 
appeared  among  them,  engaging  in  conversation  on  subjects  of 
literature  and  science.  When  Greece  was  finally  conquered  by 
the  Roman  arms,  Rome  opened  her  gates  to  receive  within  her 
walls,  Grecian  professors  of  wisdom  and  eloquence;  all  the  pre- 
judices which  before  existed,  in  a  few  years  entirely  vanished^ 
and  philosophers  and  rhetoricians,  who  were  but  lately  proscri- 
bed, were  held  in  honor  and  liberally  rewarded. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  and  only  to  be  attributed  to  the  disposition 
and  character  of  the  Roman  people,  which  encouraged  nothing 
but  a  warlike  spirit,  that  the  doctrines  of  the  Pythagorean  school, 
although  first  established  in  Italy,  did  not  extend  beyond  that 
part  of  it  called  Grcccia  Magna,  until  the  final  conquest  of  Greece, 
five  hundred  years  after  the  time  of  Pythagoras.  It  was  then 
introduced  into  Rome,  and  shared,  for  a  time,  with  the  philoso- 
phers of  the  Ionic  school,  the  countenance  and  patronage  of  the 
Roman  people.  The  most  distinguished  Roman  disciple  of  this 
mysterious  school  was  Publius -Nigidius,  who  was  contemporary 
with  Cicero,  and  who  is  described  as  an  acute  and  penetrating 
inquirer  into  the  operations  of  nature.  Nigidius  having  attach- 
ed himself  to  the  cause  of  Pompey,  when  Cassar  assumed  the  su- 
preme power,  was  banished  from  Rome,  and  the  doctrines  of 
Pythagoras  having  lost  their  chief  support,  fell  into  disrepute. 

In  the  variety  of  opposing  and  conflicting  opinions  of  the  dii1 
ferent  sects,  whose  disciples  were  heard  in  Rome,  the  Platonic  or 
Academic^  had  the  greatest  number  of  votaries,  owing  perhaps, 
as  well  to  the  influence  of  Carneades,  one  of  its  most  illustrious 
ornaments,  and  the  impressions  made  by  his  instructions,  as  to 
the  sublime  and  fascinating  character  of  the  doctrines  them- 
selves, which  laid  open  new  views  of  nature,  and  inculcated  the 
most  important  principles  in  morals.  To  this  school  the  cele- 
brated C-rrp  was  eh ieflv  attached, although  ho  made  himself  ac- 


j  gc?  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

quainted  with  the  tenets  of  each,  drawing  upon  the  rich  store  of 
information  thus  obtained,  for  some  of  the  materials  employed  in 
his  powerful  displays  of  eloquence,  to  which  senates  listened 
with  wonder  and  delight,  and  which,  after  a  lapse  of  eighteen 
hundred  years,  continue  to  improve  and  instruct  mankind. 

The  stoic  sect  found  also  many  disciples.  In  Cato  of  Utica, 
whose  life  was  an  exemplar  of  the  doctrines  he  professed,  it  pos- 
sessed a  distinguished  advocate.  This  celebrated  man  was  a 
descendant  of  Cato  the  censor,  and  exhibited  throughout  his 
whole  life  an  example  of  the  most  rigid  virtue,  inflexible  integri- 
ty and  determination  of  purpose,  which  nothing  could  shake. 
He  was  unmoved  and  inflexible  at  the  head  of  his  cohorts  and  in 
the  field  of  battle,  as  in  the  Roman  senate — in  the  midst  of  his 
little  senate  of  Utica,  while  deliberating  upon  measures  for  the 
public  good  in  a  trying  time  of  the  republic,  as  when,  surround- 
ed by  his  friends,  he  gave  the  fatal  blow  that  deprived  himself  of 
life,  and  his  country  of  a  brilliant  ornament,  at  the  same  time 
exhibiting  a  striking  instance  of  the  unsubdued  firmness  of  a 
noble  mind. 

The  Peripatetic  philosophy,  or  that  of  which  Aristotle  was 
the  founder,  was  introduced  into  Rome  in  the  time  of  Scylla, 
who,  when  the  city  of  Athens  fell  into  his  hands,  purchased  the 
writings  of  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus,  which  were  found  in 
the  possession  of  some  of  their  descendants  and  carried  them  to 
Rome.  Being  much  defaced  and  some  parts  entirely  destroyed, 
Scylla  placed  them  in  the  hands  of  Tyrannis,  a  celebrated  gram- 
marian and  critic,  who  transcribed  the  greater  part,  himself  and 
some  of  his  friends  supplying  the  deficiencies.  Thus  we  have 
the  works  of  Aristotle  imperfect  and  mutilated,  and  disfigured  by 
interpolations.  This  system  found  many  admirers  and  advocates, 
among  whom  were  Crasstis^  who  employed  a  philosopher  of  his 
school  as  a  preceptor,  and  Cicero,  notwithstanding  his  predilec- 
tion for  that  of  Plato. 

The  Epicurean  philosophy  met  with  considerable  opposition, 
in  consequence  of  the  irregularity  of  some  of  its  followers,  whose 
deviations  from  the  path  of  rectitude  were  attributed  to  the  er- 
rors and  defects  of  the  system  itself.  It  was  violently  assailed 
by  the  followers  of  Zeno,  to  whose  sterner  maxims  it  was  oppos- 
ed, by  giving  greater  license  to  the  inclinations  and  propensities 
of  mankind.  Cicero  also  opposed  it  with  great  vehemence,  and 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


took  every  opportunity  of  inveighing,  not  only  against  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  sect,  but  against  the  character  of  Epicurus  himself. 
Montesquieu  says,  that  the  introduction  of  the  philosophy  of 
Epicurus,  was  one  great  cause  of  the  corruption  of  the  Roman 
people,  and  the  downfall  of  the  republic.*  This  sect  has,  how- 
ever, found  ingenious,  if  not  able,  defenders,  in  modern  times, 
who  represent  its  founder  as  no  less  the  friend  of  strict  virtue 
and  rational  pleasure,  than  the  enemy  of  vice  and  those  low  and 
groveling  passions,  that  disgrace  our  nature.  t  Notwithstanding 
the  violent  opposition  of  the  Stoics,  backed  by  the  weight  and 
influence  of  Cicero,  it  found  many  powerful  friends  among  the 
most  respectable  characters  of  Rome,  particularly  in  the  cele- 
brated poet  Lucretius,  of  whom  we  have  already  spoken,  and 
Atticus,  the  bosom  friend  of  Cicero,  to  whom  many  of  his  epis- 
tles are  addressed,  and  who,  to  make  himself  better  acquainted 
with  the  doctrines  of  the  sect,  visited  Athens,  and  studied  under 
Phidius,  and  Zeno  the  Sidonian. 

Having  thus  briefly  sketched  the  state  of  philosophy  as  it  ex- 
isted at  Rome,  before  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  we  will 
offer  a  few  remarks  upon  that  great  event,  and  then  bring  to 
view  some  of  those  philosophers  of  different  sects,  both  pagan 
and  Christian,  who  made  themselves  conspicuous  by  their  wisdom 
and  learning. 

all  the  events  recorded  in  history  which  have  occurred 
since  the  creation  of  the  world,  the  most  wonderful,  interesting 
and  important,  is  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  The  change? 
and  revolutions  which  taken  place  in  the  political  world,  the  rise 
and  fall  of  empires,  are  interesting  and  important  events,  involv- 
ing as  they  do,  the  happiness  and  prosperity  of  nations;  but  how 
little  do  all  the  mighty  schemes  of  politicians  for  national  ag- 
grandisement appear,  when  compared  with  the  stupendous  re- 
volution produced  in  the  moral  world,  by  the  introduction  and 
promulgation  of  the  Christian  religion.  Scarcely  had  its  author 
offered  himself  and  cemented  with  his  blood,  the  religion  he  pre- 
sented to  mankind,  when  his  favored  disciples,  clothed  in  the 
sacred  mantle  of  his  righteousness,  and  invested  with  full  pow- 
ers as  ambassadors  of  God,  began  to  propogate  his  doctrines 
among  the  gentile  nations,  who  were  then  the  slaves  of  a  super- 

"  C?ran.  etDeC.  desRom.  cb.10.    f  See  Miss  Wright's  "Few  days  in  Athens.1 


.  ^4  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

stitious  idolatry,  and  to  undermine  the  deeprooted  prejudices, 
which  the  influence  of  many  centuries  had  established.  The 
edifices  which  heathen  superstition  had  erected  for  the  worship 
of  false  gods,  were  converted  into  temples,  wherein  the  suppli- 
cations of  repentant  and  contrite  hearts,  were  offered  upon  al- 
tars consecrated  to  the  service  of  the  one  true  God. 

Besides  the  wonderful  effect  wrought  in  the  moral  and  religi- 
ous world,  the  promulgation  of  Christianity,  by  pointing  to  new 
objects,  introduced  new  modes  of  thinking,  and  suggested  new 
subjects  for  discussion  and  investigation.  It  presented  a  much 
more  extensive  field  for  speculation,  and  a  much  wider  range 
for  thought,  and  for  the  exercise  of  those  reasoning  faculties 
with  which  man  is  so  liberally  endowed,  and  which  are  given 
him  to  be  employed  not  for  his  own  exclusive  benefit,  but  for  the 
good  of  the  whole  human  family.  At  the  important  period  of 
which  we  are  speaking,  the  schools  of  philosophy  exercised  a 
very  great  influence  over  the  minds  of  men,  and  the  doctrines  of 
some  by  enlightening  the  understandings  of  their  disciples,  pre- 
pared them,  in  some  degree,  to  the  reception  of  the  principles 
of  the  Christian  faith.  Some  of  the  ancient  systems,  particularly 
that  of  Plato,  inculcated  opinions  in  morals  remarkable  for  subli- 
mity, and  not  a  few  approached  very  nearly  to  some  of  the  great 
and  fundamental  doctrines  taught  by  the  apostolic  teachers,  ...It 
was  for  this  reason,  that  the  philosophy  of  Plato,  not  only  became 
a  favorite  system  among  the  early  Christians,  but  many  of  the 
fathers  incorporated  the  opinions  of  that  philosopher  with  the 
doctrines  of  divine  truth,  thus,  indeed,  corrupting  the  purity  of 
the  Christian  faith,  and  giving  to  their  pagan  adversaries  the: 
opportunity  of  asserting,  that  Christ  was  indebted  for  his  doc- 
trines to  the  heathen  philosophers  and  not  to  divine  inspiration; 
that  his  principles  were  the  "enticing  words  of  man's  wisdom — 
the  philosophy  and  vain  deceit  after  the  traditions  of  men,"  not 
the  "demonstration  of  the  spirit."  The  corruptions  which  thus 
crept  into  the  system  through  ignorance,  have  not  only  caused 
much  trouble  to  divines  and  theologians  in  after-times- to  ex- 
plain away,  but  have  been  productive  of  many  of  the  unfortu- 
nate disputes  which  have  divided,  and  still  continue  to  divide, 
the  Christian  church. 

Jesus  Christ,  as  the  founder  of  the  Christian  system  of  reli- 
gion. v,-n<?  regarded,  even  l»y  his  enemies,  as  one  gifted  with  great 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


.powers  of  intellect,  to  which  most  of  the  heathen  writers  of  the 
time  bear  testimony.  He  was  ranked  among  philosophers,  and 
although  his  doctrines  were  different  from  those  to  which  the 
world  had  been  accustomed,  he  held  no  inconsiderable  rank,  as 
one  to  whom  mankind  were  greatly  indebted  for  many  impor- 
tant discoveries  —  as  one  who  had  rendered  many  things  perfectly 
intelligible,  which  before  were  dark,  mysterious  and  impenetra- 
ble. The  mystery  which  enshrouded  many  of  the  operations 
of  nature  was  removed,  and  what  was  inexplicable,  according 
to  the  previous  conceptions  of  men,  when  viewed  by  the  bril- 
liant light  of  Christianity,  was  rendered  perfectly  clear.  Many 
of  the  Christian  fathers,  when  addressing  the  heathens,  spoke  of 
Christianity  as  the  true  and  evangelical  system  of  philosophy,  as 
distinguished  from  the  philosophy  of  the  pagan  world,  thus  in- 
geniously turning  their  attention  towards  it,  without  alarming 
their  prejudices.  By  this  means  they  were  gradually  initiated 
into  a  knowledge  of  the  great  scheme  of  Divine  Providence, 
for  the  pardon  and  redemption  of  man,  and  were  assured  of  the 
resurrection  of  the  body  at  the  last  day,  as  well  as  of  that  impor. 
tant  and  consoling  truth,  that  death  is  "the  suspension,  not  the 
extinction  of  our  being"  —  that  the  soul  does  not  perish,  but  af- 
ter death  will  pass  into  another  world  and  there  bloom  in  eternal 
spring  —  great  and  important  truths  which  were  but  dimly  seen, 
and  not  at  all  understood,  by  the  lofty  and  aspiring  minds  of  So- 
orates,  Plato  or  Aristotle. 

Among  the  philosophers  of  the  different  schools  we  have  men- 
tioned, Lucius  Seneca  holds  a  distinguished  place.  Like  Quin- 
tillian  he  was  born  at  Corduba  (now  Cordova,)  in  Spain,  about 
fifteen  years  before  the  death  of  Augustus,  and  was  taken  to 
Rome  while  yet  a  child.  His  father,  Marcus  Seneca,  had  consi- 
derable reputation  as  an  orator,  and  the  first  studies  of  Lucius 
were  directed  to  the  same  object.  His  genius,  however,  pointed 
in  a  different  direction,  and  he  became  a  disciple  of  Attalus,  a 
philosopher  of  the  stoic  school,  under  whose  instructions  he  con- 
tinued until  the  doctrines  of  Zeno  had  taken  deep  root.  Al- 
though a  stoic  in  principle,  he  examined  with  care  the  .doctrines 
of  other  sects,  and  the  result  of  his  examination  was,  a  confirma- 
tion of  the  stoical  doctrines.  The  mind  of  Seneca  was  well 
"stored  with  the  learning  of  the  times,  and  although  the  study  of 
oratory  occupied  but  a  small  portion  of  his  time,  he  was  far  from 

: 


jgb  HISTORY  Or  LITERATURE. 

. 

being  a  contemptible  orator.  The  first  public  office  with  which 
he  was  invested,  was  that  of  questor,  after  which  he  rose  to  some 
distinction  in  the  court  of  Claudius,  but  was  soon  banished, 
through  the  influence  of  the  infamous  Messalina,  the  wife  of 
Claudius,  to  the  island  of  Corsica,  where  he  continued  eight 
years.  In  this  retirement  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
philosophy,  and,  as  appears  from  a  letter  to  his  mother,  he  was 
"as  cheerful  and  happy  as  in  the  days  of  his  prosperity."  Influ- 
enced by  his  second  wife  Agrippina,  Claudius  recalled  Seneca 
from  banishment,  invested  him  with  the  office  of  pretor,  and  en- 
trusted him  with  the  education  of  Nero.  In  this  task  he  was  as- 
sociated with  Burrhus.  By  endeavoring  to  inculcate  upon  his 
pupil  just  and  equitable  sentiments,  and  instructing  him  in  the 
precepts  of  wisdom  and  virtue,  they  hoped  to  fit  him  for  the  head 
of  a  great  empire.  As  long  as  Burrhus  lived,  Nero  was  restrain- 
ed from  the  indulgence  of  those  propensities  and  intemperate 
passions,  which  afterwards  broke  out  with  so  much  violence. 
After  Nero's  accession  to  the  throne,  Seneca  enjoyed  his  favor, 
until  envy  and  jealousy  involved  him  in  the  conspiracy  of  Piso, 
and  Nero  embraced  this  opportunity  of  ridding  himself  of  hi* 
preceptor,  by  ordering  him  to  destroy  himself,  which  event  oc- 
curred A.  D.  65*  in  the  53d  year  of  his  age. 

The  writings  of  Seneca,  which  have  been  handed  down  to  us,, 
are  principally  on  subjects  of  philosophy  arid  morality;  and  con- 
sist of  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  epistles,  and  several  trea- 
tises on  a  variety  of  subjects.  His  writings  have  been  censured 
by  QuintiHian,  and  other  critics  who  have  followed  him,  as  cor- 
rupt and  inelegant  in  their  style.  They  are,  however,  highly 
valued  at  the  present  day  for  their  excellent  moral  precepts, 
notwithstanding  they  are  the  productions  of  a  heathen  philoso- 
pher. Seneca  is  also  supposed  to  have  written  several  tragedies,, 
none  of  which  are  now  extant. 

The  philosophy  of  the  stoics  appears  to  have  made  greater 
progress  and  secured  more  disciples,  in  the  days  of  the  empire, 
than  any  other  sect.  It  acquired  a  great  degree  of  credit  in 
consequence  of  the  heroic  conduct  of  many  persons  of  both  sexes 
who  embraced  its  doctrines,  and  who  supported  by  them  in  time 
of  need,  bravely  encountered  the  terrors  of  death,  to  which  they 
bad  been  doomed  by  sanguinary  tyrants,  who  delighted  in  the 
torrents  of  blood,  they  caused  to  be  shed.  Besides  Seneca,, 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  187 

llome  could  boast  of  several  distinguished  philosophers  of  this 
school,  who  flourished  before  the  schools  of  heathen  philosophy 
were  swallowed  up  by  the  Christian  schools;  among  them  we 
find  the  celebrated  Epictetus,  and  the  illustrious  Marcus  Aurelius 
Antoninus. 

Epictetus  was  a  Phrygian  by  birth,  and  was  sold  as  a  slave  to 
Epaphroditus,  one  of  Nero's  domestics.  He  flourished  from  the 
time  of  Nero  to  the  latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Adrian.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  an  "acute  and  judicious  observer  of  manners. 
His  eloquence  was  simple,  majestic,  nervous  and  penetrating. 
His  doctrines  inculcated  the  purest  morals,  and  his  life  was  an. 
admirable  pattern  of  sobriety,  magnanimity  and  the  most  rigid 
virtue."  Having  fallen  under  the  displeasure  of  Domitian,  he 
was  banished  from  Italy  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Nicopolis, 
where  he  delivered  the  precepts  of  his  philosophy.  They  were 
so  much  admired  by  his  disciples,  that  they  committed  them  to 
writing,  and  it  is  to  this  circumstance  the  world  is  indebted  for 
his  "Enchiridion,"  or  "Moral  Manual,"  collected  by  Arrian,  the 
historian  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  was  the  successor  of  Antoninus  Pius, 
and  was  no  less  distinguished  for  his  learning  and  virtue,  than  his 
imperial  dignity.  He  early  studied  the  stoic  philosophy  under 
Sextus  Junius,  and,  at  twelve  years  of  age,  appeared  in  the  ha- 
bit of  a  philosopher,  and  practised  all  the  austerities  of  the  stoic 
school.  On  the  death  of  Antoninus  Pius,  being  advanced  to  the 
empire,  he  governed  with  so  much  clemency  and  justice,  that  he 
obtained  the  general  love  of  his  subjects.  Indefatigable  in  his 
attention  to  the  duties  of  his  high  station,  he  still  found  leisure 
to  devote  to  the  pursuits  of  philosophy.  Throughout  his  whole 
life,  he  is  said  to  have  exhibited  a  shining  example  of  that  equa- 
nimity of  temper,  it  was  the  object  of  the  stoic  philosophy  to  pro- 
duce in  its  disciples.  His  "Meditations"  are  still  extant,  and  are 
regarded  as  valuable  remains  of  that  celebrated  system  of  philcr- 
sophy  to  which  he  was  attached.* 

<*  Enfield'sHist.  of  Phil.;  Meditations  of  Mar.Aure. 


188:  HISTORY  OK  LITERATURE. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

History  of  literature  from  the  accession  of  Commodus  to  the  reign  of 
Constantinc,  including  pagan  and  Christian  writers. 

BETWEEN  the  accession  of  Commodus  and  that  of  Constan- 
tine,  who  removed  the  seat  of  empire  from  Rome  to  Byzantium, 
and  thus  contributed  to  the  prostration  of  Roman  glory,  inter- 
vened a  period  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  years.     So  unset- 
tled were  the  affairs  of  the  empire,  that  in  this  short  interval  no 
less  than  twenty-one  princes  were  elevated  to  the  dangerous 
height  of  the  imperial  throne,  and,  although  a  few  of  this  num- 
ber were  able  men,  they  had  too  much  to  occupy  their  attention 
in  the  preservation  of  their  own  power,  to  permit  much  time  to 
be  devoted  to  the  concerns  of  literature.     So  lost  were  the  Ro- 
man people  to  the  principles  of  virtue- — so  little  remained  of 
their  ancient  generous  spirit  to  animate  their  bosoms — so  entire- 
ly were  they  ruled  by  the  army  and  the  pretorian  guards,  that 
they  submitted  their  necks  to  the  yoke,  and  the  chains  that  ty- 
ranny had  forged  for  them,  without  daring  to  raise  their  voices 
or  their  arms  against  such  degradation.     The  conscript  fathers, 
whose  decrees  were  once  obeyed  over  almost  the  whole  of  the 
known  world,  were  now  mere  instruments — the  obedient  slaves 
of  a  tyrant's  will.     The  noble  spirit   which  once   animated  a 
Roman  senate,  and  induced  them  to  submit  their  necks  to  the 
swords  of  the  Gauls,  rather  than  become  their  slaves,  had  long 
since  departed.     When  we  look  back  to  the  origin  of  the  repub- 
lic, and  follow  its  progress  from  the  most  humble   beginning  to 
the  very  pinnacle  of  renown — when  we  contemplate  the  Roman 
people  in  the  splendor  of  their  fame,  the  conquerors  and  arbi- 
ters of  the  world,  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  their  civil  and  politi- 
cal liberty,  the  encouragers  and  promoters  of  science,  literature 
and  the  arts — it  becomes  a  matter  of  astonishment  how  such  a 
people  could  submit  to  the  rule  of  such  profligate  and  contemp- 
tible  tyrants  as  Commodus,  CaracaJla  and  Heliogabalus.  ..But 
nations,  as  well  as  individuals,  have  their  seasons  of  prosperity 
and  decline;  and  the  ways  of  God  are  so  inscrutible,  that  what 
appears  to  our  limited  view  as  strange  and  even  unjust,  maybf 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 


180 


designed  for  the  wisest  and  best  of  ends,  j  Could  ti  sense  of  for- 
mer glory,  or  the  heroic  achievements  of  their  fathers,  have  sti- 
mulated to  deeds  of  heroism  and  acts  of  generous  valor,  under 
such  princes  as  Alexander,  Aurelian  and  Tacitus,  who  were  vir- 
tuous, just  and  merciful,  they  might  have  shaken  off  the  yoke  of 
tyranny  and  oppression,  and  regained  a  portion  of  their  former 
fame. 

Under  this  state  of  the  Roman  government,  it  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  general  literature  and  science  would  flourish  and  ex- 
tend their  branches  abroad.  The  tree  of  science  and  literature 
best  flourishes  by  the  side  of  the  tree  of  liberty;  the  soil  which 
supports  the  one,  furnishes  the  best  nutriment  to  support  the 
other.  About  this  time,  Christianity  had  made  considerable 
progress,  and  had  taken  hold  upon  the  hearts  and  affections  of 
many  of  the  people.  Fears  were  entertained  by  the  adherents 
of  the  ancient  religion,  that  their  system  would  be  overturned  -, 
hence,  literature  assumed  a  new  form,  and,  instead  of  investiga- 
ting the  wonders  of  nature,  singing  the  praises  of  gods  and  heroes 
in  measured  verse,  or  recording  the  events  of  the  times,  in  the 
free,  manly  and  energetic  style  of  Tacitus,  the  pen  was  employed 
in  unprofitable  contests  between  the  Christians  and  pagans.  The 
one  party  were  seeking  to  uphold  the  ancient  religion,  by  all  the 
arguments  philosophy  could  devise  or  ingenuity  invent,  and  ap- 
pealing to  long  established  usages;  the  other  to  overturn  the 
altars  of  pagan  superstition — the  one  endeavoring  to  support 
the  philosophy  of  the  schools  and  the  system  of  morals  they 
taught;  the  other  to  establish  the  more  sublime  system  of 
the  son  of  God.  The  contest  was  conducted  on  both  sides,  with 
much  warmth  and  zeal,  and  no  small  degree  of  acrimony.  On 
the  side  of  polytheism,  the  most  distinguished  advocate,  and,  in 
truth,  the  only  one  whose  objections  and  arguments  against  the 
Christian  religion,  seem  to  have  deserved  a  serious  refutation, 
was  Celsus,  a  philosopher  who,  having  studied  all  the  different 
systems  of  philosophy,  adopted  that  of  Epicurus. 

Cdsus  was  born  about  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Adrian.  The 
place  of  his  birth,  and  the  history  of  his  early  life,  are  alike  in- 
volved in  obscurity,  and  his  writings,  celebrated  as  they  were 
in  his  time,  are  lost,  except  so  much  of  his  work  against  chris 
tianity  as  is  preserved  in  the  work  of  Origen,  who,  having  set 
forth  his  principal  arguments  and  objections,  triumphantly  and 


190  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

successfully  refutes  them.  Celsus  was  familiarly  acquainted  with 
the  doctrines  of  the  various  schools  of  philosophy,  and  was,  no 
doubt,  well  versed  in  the  arts  of  controversy.  His  work  too, 
must  have  been  at  least  ingeniously  composed,  or  its  refutation 
would  not  have  engaged  the  pen  of  Origen,  who  was  a  distin- 
guished father  of  the  church,  and  a  zealous  and  intrepid  defen- 
der of  what  he  considered  the  truths  of  the  gospel  dispensation. 
To  the  character  and  conduct  of  the  primitive  Christians,  Celsus^ 
notwithstanding  his  prejudices,  and  even  hatred,  bears  honora- 
ble testimony,  acknowledging  that  amongst  them,  were  many 
who  were  temperate,  modest,  virtuous  and  regular  in  their  lives. 
The  literary  labors  of  Celsus  were  not  confined  to  his  controver- 
sies with  the  Christian  fathers;  he  was  the  author  of  some  other 
works,  of  which,  however,  none  are  at  present  extant. 

About  this  time  a  new  sect  of  philosophy  arose,  whose  tenets^ 
in  consequence  of  the  apparent  candor  with  which  they  were  pro- 
mulgated, spread  with  rapidity  throughout  the  empire.  This  sect 
had  its  origin  at  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  then  the  seat  of  learning.  Its 
founders  collected  from  different  sects  such  doctrines  as  they 
thought  conformable  to  truth,  and  adopted  most  of  the  leading 
doctrines  taught  by  Plato  and  his  folio weis,  and  hence  assumed 
the  name  of  Platonics;  they  were  also  called  Eclectics,  from  the 
circumstance  of  their  selecting  and  adopting  such  of  the  doc- 
trines of  different  sects  as  they  approved. 

The  founder  of  this  sect  was  Potamo,  a  disciple  of  the  school 
of  Plato,  who  flourished,  as  is  supposed  by  some,  under  Augus- 
tus, by  others  towards  the  close  of  the  second  century.  This 
system  of  philosophy,  although  compounded  of  the  doctrines  of 
the  Egyptian,  Platonic,  Pythagorean  and  other  sects,  intermixed 
with  the  doctrines  of  Christ  arid  the  Persian  Zoroaster,  found 
many  advocates  among  the  Alexandrian  Christians,  who  were 
desirous  of  retaining  the  title  and  habit  of  philosophers,  with 
their  character  as  Christians.  After  Potamo,  the  eclectic  school 
was  supported  by  Ammonius^  who  considered  the  ancient  philo- 
sophy of  the  east,  as  preserved  by  Plato,  to  be  the  primitive 
standard  of  all  religions,  and  to  restore  it  to  its  original  purity 
was  the  great  design  of  Jesus  Christ  upon  earth.  Ammonius 
was  born  of  Christian  parents,  and  was  early  instructed  in  the 
learning  of  the  Alexandrian  schools.  When  he  arrived  to  man's 
estate,  ho  apostatized  from  the  faith  in  which  he  had  been  edu 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


1 1J  i 


Gated,  at  least  so  far  as  to  adopt  the  general  principles  of  philo- 
sophy taught  by  Potamo,  making,  however,  such  additions  and 
alterations  as  conformed  with  his  own  ideas.  Although  educa- 
ted in  the  Christian  faith,  his  leading  object  seems  to  have  heen 
to  obstruct  the  progress  of  Christianity  hy  combining  the  princi- 
pal tenets  of  the  pagan  and  Christian  schools,  and  thus  to  bring 
about  a  coalition  of  all  the  philosophical  sects,  and  all  the  diffe- 
rent systems  of  religion  that  prevailed  in  the  world.  To  recon- 
cile the  various  systems  of  religion,  and  particularly  the  chris 
tian,  with  his  own,  he  turned  into  a  mere  allegory  the  whole  his- 
tory of  the  gods,  and  maintained  that  those  beings  whom  the 
priests  and  people  dignified  with  this  title,  were  no  more  than 
celestial  ministers,  to  whom  a  certain  kind  of  worship  was  due ; 
but  a  worship  inferior  to  that  which  was  to  he  reserved  for  the 
Supreme  Deity.  He  acknowledged  Christ  to  be  a  most  excel- 
lent man,  the  friend  of  God,  the  admirable  thcurge;  he  denied* 
however,  that  Jesus  designed  to  abolish  entirely,  the  worship  of 
demons,  and  of  the  other  ministers  of  divine  Providence ;  and 
affirmed,  on  the  contrary,  that  his  only  intention  was,  to  purify 
the  ancient  religion,  and  that  his  followers  had  manifestly  cor- 
rupted the  doctrines  of  their  divine  master.*  This  combination 
of  heathen  and  Christian  philosophy,  was  the  cause  of  innume- 
rable corruptions  which  subsequently  flowed  into  the  channel  of 
the  Christian  church,  impairing  the  beautiful  simplicity  of  its 
doctrines,  and,  in  the  dark  ages  which  followed  the  decline  of 
learning,  produced  a  superstition  as  blind,  as  ever  disgraced  the 
altars  and  temples  of  paganism.  Too  many  of  those  who  are 
called  fathers  of  the  church,  and  whose  opinions  were  reveren- 
ced as  divine,  were  educated  in  the  principles  of  the  eclectic 
school — this  mixture  of  truth  and  falsehood.  After  the  revival, 
of  learning,  the  eclectic  philosophy  was  attempted  to  be  revived 
by  Jerome  Cardan,  a  physician  of  Pavia,  who  is  represented  to 
have  been  a  wonderful  compound  of  wisdom  and  folly,  and  it  af- 
terwards found  advocates  in  the  celebrated  Francis  Bacon,  Cam* 
panella,  Hobbes,  Des  Cartes,  Leibnitz  and  others. 

After  this  brief  notice  of  a  system  of  philosophy,  which  was 
destined  to  have  a  considerable  influence  upon  the  state  of  reli 
gion  and  science,  we  will  return  to  the  most  celebrated  writers 

*  Mosheim's  Ecc.  His.  vol.  1. 


I  g.>  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

of  that  period,  who  were  all  more  or  less  tinctured  with  its  prin- 
ciples. Tertullian  was  a  native  of  Carthage,  and  was  the  con- 
temporary and  opponent  of  Celsus.  After  he  renounced  the 
errors  of  paganism  and  embraced  Christianity,  like  Saul  of  Tar- 
sus, he  became  one  of  its  zealous  advocates.  Although  he  was 
not  brought  up  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel,  he  was  instructed  in  the 
learning  of  the  times,  and  was  intimately  acquainted  with  the 
doctrines  and  opinions  of  the  different  sects  of  Grecian  philoso- 
phy. As  many  Christians,  who  had  been  educated  in  pagan 
schools,  mingled  the  doctrines  of  philosophy  with  the  doctrines 
of  the  church,  he  attributed  most  of  the  heresies  which  had  theo 
crept  into  its  bosom,  to  their  influence,  and  styles  philosophers 
the  "patriarchs  of  heretics."  Tertullian  possessed  a  lively  and 
vivid  imagination,  rather  than  a  strong  and  discriminating  mind, 
•and,  in  his  zeal  against  what  he  esteemed  a  vain  philosophy,  he 
adopted  and  gave  currency  to  opinions  almost  as  much  at 
war  with  the  sober  dictates  of  reason,  as  the  wildest  theories  of 
those  against  whose  doctrines  and  opinions  he  was  contending. 
Of  this  we  might  cite  many  instances,  did  our  limits  permit. 
The  most  celebrated  of  his  works  is  his  "Apology  for  the  Chris- 
tians," in  which  he  refutes  the  various  calumnies  that  were  cir- 
<•  ulated  against  them. 

About  this  time  flourished  Clemens  Alexandrinus.  He  receiv- 
ed his  education  in  the  schools  of  Alexandria.  He  had  various 
preceptors,  by  whom  he  was  initiated  into  all  the  learning  of  the 
oast,  as  wrell  as  the  philosophy  and  literature  of  the  Greeks.  Al- 
though celebrated  as  a  Christian  father,  and  one  of  the  suppor- 
ters of  the  church  in  perilous  times,  in  consequence  of  blending 
the  tenets  of  the  heathen  philosophers,  with  the  chiistian  doc- 
trines in  his  Writings,  he  was,  in  many  respects,  injurious  to  the 
cause  he  supported;  and  particularly  in  after  ages,  when  the 
opinions  of  the  primitive  fathers  were  regarded  as  divine,  and 
of  equal  authority  with  the  scriptures  themselves.  Like  others, 
he  transferred  many  of  the  opinions  of  the  Platonic  and  other 
schools  to  the  Christian,  and  thus  contributed  to  impair  the  sym- 
metry of  the  Christian  edifice.  To  such  writers  and  such  theo- 
logians, who  mingled  the  doctrines  of  contrary  and  opposing  sys- 
tems, most  of  the  errors  which  disfigured  the  rites,  ceremonies 
and  doctrines  of  the  church  may  be  traced,  which  over- 
spread the  whole  Christian  world  with  darkness,  until  illuminated 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  J93 

by  the  glorious  rays  of  the  sun  of  the  reformation.  So  much 
was  Clemens  captivated  with  the  Grecian  philosophy,  that  he 
declared,  that  "philosophy  was  communicated  to  the  Greeks 
from  Heaven,  as  their  proper  testament  or  covenant,  and  that  it 
was  to  them  what  the  law  of  Moses  was  to  the  Hebrews."  Among 
the  peculiar  doctrines  taught  by  Clemens,  are  the  following, 
which  will  show  to  what  extent  he  mingled  the  doctrines  of 
Plato  with  those  of  Christ.  He  taught  that  the  Logos  is  the 
image  of  the  Father,  and  man  the  image  of  the  Logos — that  the 
Logos  proceeded  from  God  for  the  purpose  of  creation — that  the 
world  was  produced  from  God,  as  a  son  from  a  father — that 
there  are  two  worlds,  the  sensible  and  the  intelligible — that  an- 
gels are  corporeal — that  man  has  two  souls,  the  rational  and  ir- 
rational, and  that  the  stars  are  animated  by  a  rational  soul. 

Origen)  the  celebrated  opponent  of  Celsus  and  the  zealous  de- 
fender of  Christianity,  was  born  at  Alexandria  A.  D.  184,  during 
the  reign  of  Commodus.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Clemens  of  Alexan- 
dria, and  was  instructed  in  the  tenets  of  the  several  sects  of  phi- 
losophy, as  preparatory  to  the  study  of  the  sublime  doctrines  of 
Christianity — a  course  of  instruction  which  the  Christians  of  the 
present  day,  would  consider  as  not  very  well  adapted  to  prepare 
the  mind  for  the  reception  of  the  truths  of  the  gospel.  Origen 
afterwards  became  a  disciple  of  Ammonius,  an  eclectic  philoso- 
pher, whose  school  was  attended  by  Christians  as  well  as  pagans, 
who  equally  received  the  benefit  of  his  instructions*  In  this 
school  Origen  continued  until  he  made  himself  master  of  the 
learning  of  the  times,  and  at  eighteen  years  of  age,  he  opened  a 
school  himself,  for  the  double  purpose  of  teaching,  and  procuring 
the  means  of  subsistence  for  his  mother  and  her  family  of  six 
children.  His  school  soon  became  celebrated,  and  was  crowd- 
ed with  pupils,  both  Christian  and  pagan,  so  that  he  was  not  only 
enabled  to  support  his  mother  and  family,  but  gained  a  considera- 
ble surplus.  On  the  death  of  Clemens,  he  took  possession  of  the 
Christian  catechetical  school  which  he  had  established,  and  in 
this  new  situation  he  employed  every  means  to  convince  his  pu- 
pils of  the  superiority  of  the  Christian,  over  every  other  system 
of  religion,  and,  at  the  same  time,  inculcated,  by  precept  and  ex- 
ample, a  most  rigid  system  of  morals.  Some  of  his  opinions, 
however,  partaking  of  that  mixture  of  pagan  philosophy  and 
Christianity,  which  he  imbibed  from  Clemeps  ajid  Ammonius,  are 

25 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


at  variance  with  the  doctrines  of  the  bible,  at  least  as  we  under- 
stand them,  and  his  fanciful  mode  of  interpeting  certain  pas- 
sages, was  the  fruitful  source  of  many  errors.  This  mode  of  in- 
terpretation— this  "spiritualising"  the  scriptures,  arose  from  an 
opinion  he  adopted,  that  "wherever  the  literal  sense  of  scripture 
was  not  obvious,  the  words  were  to  be  understood  in  a  spiritual 
and  mystical  sense."  This  same  mode  of  "spiritualising,"  we 
have  heard  employed  by  modern  divines,  and  carried  to  a  ridi- 
culous extent.  As  Origen  possessed  lively  talents,  and  a  ready 
and  fluent  manner  of  delivery,  he  was  successful  in  the  dissemi- 
nation of  his  opinions  and  gained  many  proselytes.  He  taught 
that  the  divine  nature  is  the  fountain  of  matter,  and  is,  in  some 
sense,  material — that  God,  angels  and  the  souls  of  men,  are  of 
one  and  the  same  substance — that  the  son  proceeding  from  the 
Father  like  a  solar  ray>  differs  from,  and  is  inferior  to  him — 
that  every  man  is  attended  by  a  good  and  bad  angel,  and  that 
human  souls  were  formed  by  God  before  the  bodies,  into  which 
they  are  sent  as  into  a  prison,  for  the  punishment  of  their  sins, 
and  that  they  pass  from  one  body  to  another.  Origen  was  the 
first  who  taught  the  doctrine  of  universal  salvation,  a  doctrine 
that  has  gained,  and  is  still  gaining,  many  followers.  Origen. 
died  A.  D.  254. 

Plotinusy  a  celebrated  disciple  of  the  eclectic  school,  was  born 
at  Lycopolis  in  Egypt,  about  the  year  205.  After  attend- 
ing the  different  schools  of  Alexandria,  he  attached  himself  to 
Ammonius,  with  whom  he  continued  eleven  years.  Before  he 
became  a  public  teacher,  he  travelled  into  Persia  and  India,  for 
the  purpose  of  making  himself  acquainted  with  the  philosophy 
of  the  Magi  and  Gymnosophists,  which  he  had  heard  highly 
commended.  Plotinus  was  enthusiastically  attached  to  the  eclec- 
tic system,  and  for  ten  years  confined  himself  to  oral  instruction, 
always  conversing  freely  with  his  disciples,  encouraging  them  to 
propose  questions  on  every  subject.  He  afterwards  committed 
the  substance  of  his  lectures  to  writing,  as  well  for  his  own  con- 
venience, as  that  of  his  disciples.  His  disciples  were  not  very 
numerous,  but  he  was  so  highly  esteemed  for  his  wisdom  and 
probity,  that  the  most  difficult  controversies  between  individu- 
als were  referred  to  his  decision.  He  died  A.  D.  270,  aged 
sixty-eight  years;  and  just  Before  he  breathed  his  last,  repeated 
a  leading  doctrine  of  his  system,  that  "the  divine  principle 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  j9^ 

within  was  hastening  to  unite  itself  with  that  Divine  Being 
which  animates  the  universe,"  intimating  that  the  human  soul 
is  an  emanation  from  the  divine  nature,  and  will  return  to  the 
source  whence  it  proceeded. 

To  the  same  school  belonged  Porphyry,  a  learned  and  zea- 
lous supporter  of  the  pagan  theology.  He  was  born  A.  D.  233,, 
and  was  first  placed  under  the  instructions  of  Origen,  but  his 
education  was  completed  by  Longinus,  to  whom  he  is  supposed 
to  be  indebted  for  a  certain  elegant  and  artificial  style,  whicli 
distinguishes  his  writings  from  most  of  the  writings  of  the  times. 
•  At  thirty  years  of  age,  he  became  a  disciple  of  Plotinus,  then 
celebrated  as  a  teacher,  and  made  great  proficiency  in  the  ac- 
quirement of  general  knowledge,  and  particularly  of  the  philo- 
sophy of  the  eclectics.  He  was  esteemed  by  Plotinus  as  one  of 
the  greatest  ornaments  of  his  school,  and  was  frequently  employ- 
ed, not  only  in  explaining  the  difficulties  of  his  system,  but  in 
refuting  the  objections  of  his  opponents.  After  the  death  of 
Plotinus,  he  appeared  as  the  open  and  avowed  enemy  of  christia- 
nitv,  even  more  rancorous  in  his  hatred  than  Celsus,  and  in  op- 
position to  its  doctrines,  he  wrote  fifteen  distinct  treatises,  which 
the  emperor  Theodosius,  in  his  mistaken  zeal,  ordered  to  be  de- 
stroyed. A  few  fragments  are  preserved  in  the  writings  of  his 
contemporaries.  Like  some  of  our  modern  enthusiasts,  he  pre- 
tended to  have  been  favored  with  communications  from  Heaven, 
and  to  have  beheld  the  Supreme  Being.  He  died  A.  D.  304. 
Porphyry  was  a  voluminous  writer,  independent  of  his  writings 
against  the  Christians,  and  was  esteemed  a  man  of  great  learn- 
ing, but  deficient  in  judgment  and  integrity. 

The  immediate  follower  of  Porphyry,  in  the  eclectic  school, 
&  was  Jamblichus,  a  native  of  Chalcis  in  Syria.  He  taught  the 
eclectic  philosophy  with  so  much  success,  that  his  school  was 
crowded  with  disciples,  whom  he  attached  to  himself  by  the 
freedom  with  which  he  conversed  with  them — laying  aside  the 
authority  of  the  master  and  appearing  in  the  amiable  character 
of  friend.  He  differed  but  little  from  his  predecessor. 

We  might  introduce  many  other  Christian  fathers  and  philo- 
sophers, whose  names  have  swelled  the  long  list  of  saints  in  the 
Romish  calendar,  whose  works  wrere  held  in  high  esteem  in  the 
dark  ages,  but  which  were  so  interpreted  by  an  assuming  clergy, 
as  to  corrupt  the  most  beautiful  system  of  religion  ever  offered 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

to  man,  and  instead  of  diffusing  light  and  knowledge  among  the 
people,  rendered  them  the  obedient  slaves  of  the  mitre.  But, 
as  it  would  greatly  exceed  our  limits,  we  will  conclude  the  view 
we  designed  to  take  of  the  history  of  literature,  to  the  reign  of 
Constantine,  with  a  brief  notice  of  Longinus,  the  celebrated  au- 
thor of  the  "Treatise  on  the  sublime." 

Longinus  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  an  Athenian  by 
birth,  by  others,  a  native  of  Emessa  in  Syria,  and  was  educated 
by  Cornelius  Pronto^  a  nephew  of  Plutarch.  His  youth  was  de* 
voted  to  study,  and  for  the  acquirement  of  knowledge  he  visited 
various  cities,  and  attended  the  most  eminent  teachers  in  elo- 
quence and  philosophy.  At  Athens,  where  he  fixed  his  resi- 
dence, he  acquired  so  great  a  reputation  as  a  writer,  that  every 
literary  production  was  approved  or  rejected  according  to  his 
decision;  and  in  consequence  of  his  extensive  learning,  he  was 
distinguished  by  the  title  of  the  "living  library."  His  reputa- 
tion having  reached  Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra,  she  invited  him 
to  her  court,  and  not  only  placed  her  sons  under  his  care,  but 
took  lessons  herself  in  the  Greek  language,  being  already  con- 
versant with  the  Latin,  Syriac  and  Egyptian.  Longinus  having 
enjoyed  the  bounty,  shared  the  misfortunes  of  Zenobia,  who  hav- 
ing been  defeated  by  the  emperor  Aurelian,  near  Antioch,  shut 
herself  up  in  Palmyra.  The  city  being  taken,  the  queen  and 
Longinus  attempted  to  escape  into  Persia,  but  were  taken  in 
crossing  the  Euphrates.  Zenobia  was  reserved  to  grace  the  tri- 
umphal entry  of  Aurelian  into  his  capital,  but  Longinus,  through 
the  weakness  of  the  queen,  was  sacrificed  to  his  resentment. 
"Genius  and  learning,"  says  Gibbon,  "were  incapable  of  moving 
a  fierce  and  unlettered  soldier,  but  they  had  served  to  elevate 
and  harmonise  the  soul  of  Longinus.  VVithout  uttering  a  com- 
plaint, he  calmly  followed  the  executioner^  pitying  his  unhappy 
mistress,  and  bestowing  comfort  on  his  afflicted  friends."* 

Longinus  was  the  author  of  many  philosophical  and  critical 
works,  only  one  of  which,  his  "Treatise  on  the  sublime,"  has 
escaped  the  ravages  of  time,  and  the  more  destructive  ravages 
of  Gothic  violence  and  ignorance.  At  the  present  day  this  ce- 
lebrated treatise  enjoys,  perhaps,  a  much  higher  reputation 
than  when  first  published,  not  only  on  account  of  its  intrinsic 

*  Gibbon's  Rom.  Emp.  vol.  1,  ch.  11. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  {  y  , 

merit,  but  a  certain  veneration  we  feel  for  the  proud  remains  oi 
ancient  learning.  It  is  a  standard  work  in  our  seminaries  of 
learning,  and  is  regarded  as  a  monument  of  the  critical  acumen 
of  the  author,  as  well  as  the  best  work  on  sublimity  of  writing, 
that  has  ever  been  published*  A  learned  writer  has  observed, 
that  he  "not  only  discovers  a  lively  relish  for  the  beauties  of 
fine  writing,  but  is  himself  an  excellent,  and  in  several  passages^ 
a  truly  sublime  writer."  From  his  remarks  upon  the  influence 
of  free  institutions  upon  literature,  and  particularly  upon  orato- 
ry, it  would  appear,  that  he  knew  how  to  estimate  that  liberty 
for  which  Greece  was  once  so  renowned.  "Liberty,"  says  he, 
"is  the  nurse  of  genius;  it  animates  the  spirit  and  invigorates 
the  hopes  of  men;  it  excites  honorable  emulation  and  a  desire 
of  excelling  in  every  thing  that  is  laudable  and  praiseworthy." 
These  sentiments,  so  accordant  with  the  genuine  spirit  of  liberty, 
were  advanced  long  after  the  liberties  of  Greece  had  been 
sacrificed  at  the  shrine  of  Roman  ambition,  and  the  liberties  of 
Rome  herself  we^e  prostrated  at  the  feet  of  her  emperors.* 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

History  of  literature,  from  the  accession  of  Constantine,  to  the  founda- 
tion of  the  French  monarchy  by  Clovis. 

Constantinc  the  great,  ascended  the  imperial  throne  on  the  ab- 
dication of  Dioclesian  and  Maxirnian  A.  D.  306,  and  soon  after, 
Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the  empire;  that  is,  instead 
of  Christians  being  the  subjects  of  persecution,  they  were  pro- 
tected by  the  emperor,  and  the  pagan  institutions  proscribed  in 
their  turn. 

The  conversion  of  Constantine  from  the  errors  of  idolatry  to 
the  true  religion,  was  caused,  it  is  said,  by  one  of  those  extraor- 
dinary circumstances,  which,  if  true,  was  well  calculated  to 
strike  the  mind  with  great  force  in  a  superstitious  age.  Butr 
whether  his  conversion  was  really  occasioned  by  the  miraculous 

*  Mosh.  Eccl.  Hist.;  Enf.  Hist,  of  Phil,:,  Cours  de  lit.  parLaharpe;  Abbe  Maury 
•D  Oraf ;  Gibbon'*  Rom,  Emp 


19-3 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 


light  he  is  represented  to  have  seen  in  the  heavens,  or,  as  with 
Clovis  at  a  subsequent  period,  it  was  the  result  of  deep-sighted 
policy,  is  as  difficult  to  determine,  as  it  is  to  penetrate  the  secret 
motives  of  designing  men.  This  event  is  thus  related  by  Euse- 
bius,  bishop  of  Cresaria,  whom  Constantine  particularly  favored; 
"while  marching  with  the  forces  in  the  afternoon,  the  trophy  of 
the  cross  appeared  very  luminous  in  the  heavens,  higher  than 
the  sun,  bearing  this  inscription,  "!N  HOC  SIGNO  VINCES,"  by  this  sign 
thou  shall  conquer.  He  and  his  soldiers  were  astonished  at  the 
sight,  and  continued  pondering  on  the  event  till  night,  when 
Christ  appeared  to  him,  while  asleep,  with  the  same  sign  of  the 
cross,  and  directed  him  to  make  use  of  the  symbol  as  his  milita- 
ry ensign."  Ambitious  men  have  often  made,  and  still  make, 
religion  an  instrument  to  favor  their  own  designs,  and  by  this 
means  imposing  upon  an  ignorant  and  credulous  multitude,  ad- 
vance themselves  to  power  and  authority.  Constantine  was  not 
only  ambitious  and  cunning,  but  was  contending  for  the  empire 
of  the  world,  and  he  well  knew  how  to  operate  upon  the  minds 
of  a  superstitious  soldiery.  He  immediately  embraced  chris- 
tianitv,  and  animating  his  soldiers  by  calling  their  attention  to 
this  striking  manifestation  of  the  favor  of  heaven,  they  rushed 
to  battle,  and  gained  a  signal  victory  over  Maxentius,  his  rival. 
Henceforth  Constantine  adopted  the  cross  as  his  standard,  and 
that  which  was  before  an  object  of  horror,  in  consequence  o$ 
the  terrible  punishment  it  called  to  mind,  became  the  badge 
of  honor  and  distinction.  "The  same  symbol  sanctified  the 
arms  of  the  soldiers  of  Constantine:  the  cross  glittered  on  their 
shields,  was  interwoven  in  their  banners,  and  the  consecrated 
emblems,  which  adorned  the  person  of  the  emperor  himself,  were 
distinguished  only  by  richer  materials  and  more  exquisite  work- 
manship. "* 

The  political  and  religious  character  of  Constantine  is  vari- 
ously estimated,  as  the  particulars  of  his  history  are  drawn  from 
Christian  or  pagan  writers.  By  the  one  he  is  represented  as  a 
glorious  prince,  the  friend  of  learning  and  the  arts,  possessing 
every  quality  necessary  to  constitute  a  great  man;  by  the  other 
he  is  represented  as  destitute  of  every  principle  of  virtue  and 
honor,  a  bigot  in  the  new  religion  he  had  embraced,  and  often 

•  (iibbon's  Rom.Euip.:  Euseb.  Life  of  Cons.  Mosh.  Ecc.  Higt. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  jgi) 

sacrificing  his  subjects  to  the  gratification  of  his  passions  and 
his  own  personal  vanity.  In  the  front  rank  of  his  apologists 
stands  his  friend  arid  biographer,  Euscbius,  who  fails  not  to  place 
the  character  of  his  hero  in  the  most  favorable  light,  and  extol 
him  as  a  pious  and  devout  Christian.  In  the  variety  of  opinions 
with  regard  to  his  character,  the  remarks  of  Lardner,  appear  to 
us  perfectly  judicious;  "it  is  next  to  impossible,"  says  he,  "for 
human  wisdom  and  discretion,  in  the  course  of  many  years  filled 
with  action,  not  to  be  surprised  into  some  injustice,  through  the 
bias  of  affection,  or  the  specious*  suggestions  of  artful  and  de- 
signing people.  Though,  therefore,  there  may  have  been  some 
transactions  in  this  reign  which  cannot  be  easily  justified,  and 
others  that  must  be  condemned,  yet  we  are  not  to  consider  Con- 
stantine as  a  cruel  prince  or  a  bad  man." 

During  the  reign  of  Constantine  general  literature  made  but 
little  progress;  it  required  more  than  ordinary  encouragement 
and  exertions  to  recover  from  the  blow  it  received  after  the  ac- 
cession of  Commodus.  Constantine  having  declared  Christianity 
to  be  the  religion  of  the  empire,  the  schools  of  the  pagans  were 
closed,  and  among  the  Christians  there  was  not  learning  enough 
to  supply  their  place:  hence  it  rapidly  declined,  and,  in  a  short 
time,  the  Christian  world  presented  little  more  than  incoherent 
treatises  on  controverted  points  of  doctrine,  to  procure  the  parch- 
ment for  which,  many  of  the  most  celebrated  productions  of  an- 
cient genius  were  erased,  to  the  great  loss  of  future  ages.  Th^ 
greater  number  of  the  bishops  and  presbyters  were  entirely  des- 
titute of  all  learning  and  education,  and  inculcated  the  idea  that 
all  sorts  of  erudition,  were  pernicious  to  true  piety  and  religion.* 
The  influence  of  Christianity  upon  learning,  or  rather  the  in- 
fluence of  its  professors,  in  this  and'after  ages,  was  very  differ- 
ent from  what  appears  to  us  to  be  its  natural  and  obvious  ten- 
dency, namely,  to  encourage  learning  and  science,  and  whatever 
is  connected  with  them,  that  by  enlightening  the  mind,  truth  may 
dispel  error,  virtue  triumph  over  vice,  and  universal  charity 
unite  all  men,  in  the  benevolent  purpose  of  promoting  each 
others'  happiness.  It  is  an  observation  confirmed  by  experience, 
that  wherever  the  Christian  doctrines,  pure  and  undefiled  by  the 
errors  of  superstition,  exercise  an  influence,  the  mind  of  mAnex- 
^MosheinrsEcc.  Hist.  vol.  1 


2(j(j  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

pands;  new  sources  of  information  open  before  him,  and  he  grasps 
with  avidity  at  whatever  seems  calculated  to  enlarge  and  im- 
prove his  faculties,  and  fit  him  in  a  greater  degree,  for  the  active 
and  useful  purposes  of  life.  His  mental  energies  are  not  called 
into  action,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  supporting  the  opinions  of 
one  particular  sect,  to  which  he  may  be  attached,  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  every  other  object.  He  walks  abroad,  and  contempla- 
ting the  wide  expanse  of  nature's  works,  and  how  equally  the 
all  wise  and  benevolent  Creator  has  dispensed  his  blessings,  he 
feels  none  of  the  spirit  of  persecution,  but  a  generous  and  libe- 
ral disposition  towards  all.  It  was  not  so  during  the  period  un- 
der review.  Christianity  had  been  persecuted  for  three  centu- 
ries with  the  most  rancorous  violence — its  professors  had  been 
exposed  to  every  indignity,  and  the  most  cruel  and  horrid  pun- 
ishments were  inflicted  upon  those  unfortunate  and  unhappy  be- 
ings who  had  the  hardihood  to  profess  Christianity,  in  opposition 
to  the  decrees  of  the  ruling  powers.  When,  however,  Christiani- 
ty became  the  dominant  religion,  and  Christian  princes  wielded 
the  sceptre,  the  pagans  were  persecuted  in  their  turn;  "the  gods 
of  Rome  were  publicly  insulted ;  their  statues  broken  and  their 
worshippers  oppressed.  The  thunder  of  penal  laws  was  point- 
ed against  the  ancient  rites;  it  was  made  capital  to  offer  sacri- 
fices which  had  formerly  been  enjoined  by  law;  the  altar  of  vic- 
tory, that  altar  so  dear  to  the  nation,  was  demolished  before  the 
eyes  of  the  senate,  and  every  pagan,  every  man  who  did  not  con- 
form to  the  Christian  creed,  was  excluded  from  all  employments, 
civil  and  military."  In  this  disastrous  state  of  the  empire,  torn 
to  pieces  by  civil  and  religious  dissensions,  the  seminaries  of  learn- 
ing came  in  for  their  full  share  of  affliction,  particularly  such  as 
were  under  the  direction  of  pagan  teachers,  and  in  which  some- 
thing like  a  literary  taste  and  spirit  still  existed.  The  pagan 
schools  being  closed,  schools  were  opened  in  their  stead  under 
ignorant  monks,  or  inferior  clergy,  in  which  little  was  taught 
that  could  enlighten  the  mind  or  improve  the  understanding,  be 
cause  the  superior  clergy,  whose  influence  was  already  great, 
found  it  very  convenient  to  suppress  all  kinds  of  learning  except 
among  their  own  body. 

Wjth  the  exception  of  a  few  writers  who  attained  some  dis- 
tinction, the  learning  of  the  times  was  chiefly  directed  against 
the  supporters  of  Arian  heresy.  Jriw.  the  father  of  this  heresy. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  20  j 

was  a  presbyter  of  Alexandria,  of  more  than  usual  learning  and 
eloquence;  he  possessed  a  bold  and  daring  spirit,  and  his  natu- 
ral talents  had  been  greatly  improved  by  the  frequent  controver- 
sies in  which  he  had  been  engaged.  Arius  maintained,  in  an 
assembly  of  presbyters  at  Alexandria,  that  the  Son  was  essen- 
tially different  from  the  Father;  that  there  was  a  time  hid  in  the 
depths  of  eternity,  when  he  did  not  exist;  Ibit  he  was  a  creature 
brought  into  being  by  the  will  of  the  Supreme  God ;  that  al- 
though a  created  being,  inferior  and  subordinate  to  the  Father, 
he  was  the  framer  of  the  world,  and  governed  the  universe  as 
the  representative  of  the  eternal  and  unchangeable  divinity. 
These  doctrines  were  making  such  rapid  advances  in  the  public 
mind,  that  they  excited  the  attention  of  Alexander,  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  who  publicly  excommunicated  Arius  and  his  follow- 
ers. Arius  retired  to  Palestine,  where  he  found  a  protector  in 
Eusebius,  bishop  of  Caesaria.  The  contest  still  continued,  and 
at  length  reached  such  a  height,  that  sober  argument  was  aban- 
doned, and,  in  its  stead,  every  epithet  that  malignant  and  fiery 
zeal  could  employ,  was  used  on  both  sides.  Constantine,  in  or- 
der to  heal  the  breach,  first  wrote  to  the  bishop  of  Alexandria 
and  to  Arius,  exhorting  them  to  cease  quarrelling,  and  restore 
peace  to  the  church,  but,  finding  his  exhortations  of  no  avail,  he 
summoned  a  general  council  A.  D.  325,  at  Nice,  a  city  of  By- 
thinia.  This  celebrated  council  consisted  of  two  thousand  ec- 
clesiastics, from  all  parts  of  the  Christian  world,  amongst  whom 
were  three  hundred  and  eighteen  bishops.  In  this  council  Con- 
stantine presided  in  person,  but  neither  his  presence  or  authority 
could  prevent  the  most  indecent  and  disgraceful  contests  among 
the  fathers  of  the  council,  who  appear  to  have  thought,  that  the 
principal  object  of  this  great  convocation  was,  to  adjust  their 
own  private  disputes,  and  not  the  important  question  that  brought 
them  together.  At  length,  by  the  exertions  and  influence  of  the 
emperor,  the  council  was  brought  to  consider  the  main  question, 
and  decided  igainst  the  doctrines  of  Arius,  and  ordered  his 
books  to  be  burnt  and  himself  banished  to  Illyria.  His  follow- 
ers were  compelled  to  give  their  assent  to  a  creed  composed 
and  adopted  by  the  council,  which,  of  course,  essentially  differ, 
ed  from  the  doctrines  he  taught,  and  Constantine  ordered  all 
those  who  should  conceal  any  of  the  works  of  Arius  to  be  put  to 
death,  even  without  the  form  of  trial,  but  at  the  same  time,  with 

26 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

singular  inconsistency,  permitted  the  great  author  of  the  heresy 
to  live. 

Among  the  few  writers  worthy  of  notice  in  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantine, the  most  distinguished  were  Landantius  and  Eusebius. 
Lanctantius  was  born  at  Firmium,  a  town  of  Italy,  from  whence 
he  received  the  sirname  ofFirmianus.  There  is  but  little  known 
of  his  family,  or  of  his  early  life.  At  Rome  he  attracted  the  no- 
tice of  Dioclesian,  as  a  rhetorician,  and  was  by  him  selected  to 
teach  rhetoric  in  Nicomedia,  where  he  continued  some  time  af- 
ter the  persecution  of  the  Christians  under  Dioclesian.  He  es- 
caped the  fate  which  threatened  him,  but  whether  by  the  special 
favor  of  the  emperor,  or  by  his  own  ingenuity,  is  not  known. 
On  the  accession  of  Constantine,  when  Christianity  became  the 
religion  of  the  empire,  and  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  had 
ceased,  Lanctantius  was  appointed  to  teach  Crispus,  the  son  of 
Constantino,  the  Latin  language.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer, 
and  his  pen  was  principally  employed  in  defence  of  the  Christian 
religion,  or  on  subjects  immediately  connected  therewith,  which 
were  calculated  to  display  its  superiority  over  the  institutions  of 
paganism.  His  works  are  wriHen  with  greater  purity,  and  dis- 
cover more  erudition,  than  was  usual  in  his  age.  His  principal 
works  are,  "On  the  works  of  God,"  and  "Divine  Institutions." 
In  the  first  he  treats  of  the  magnificent  works  of  the  Creator, 
and  his  "Divine  Institutions,"  is  an  able  defence  of  Christianity 
against  the  attacks  of  the  pagans.  On  account  of  the  eloquence 
c-f  his  style,  he  was  called  the  "Christian  Cicero." 

Eusebius  was  born  in  Palestine,  in  the  city  of  Caesaria.  He 
was  ordained  a  presbyter  at  an  early  age,  and  taught  a  school 
in  his  native  city  with  considerable  reputation.  During  the 
persecution  of  the  Christians  under  Dioclesian,  he  first  removed 
to  Tyre  and  then  retired  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  imprisoned, 
but  in  a  short  time  was  released.  When  the  persecution  ceased 
he  returned  to  Palestine,  and  was  elected  bishop  of  Ctesaria. 
He  was  a  distinguished  member  of  the  celebrated  council  o£ 
Nice  A.  D.  325,  and  opened  the  proceedings  by  an  address  to 
the  emperor.  He  was  also  a  prominent  member  of  subsequent 
councils,  and  although  he  favored  the  Arians,  he  was  honored 
with  particular  marks  of  the  regard  of  Constantine.  He  died 
about  the  year  A.  D.  340.  Eusebius  was  one  of  the  most  learn- 
ed men  of  his  time,  and  was  not  only  remarkable  for  his  extraor- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  203 

dinary  and  critical  knowledge  of  the  scriptures,  but  was  even 
distinguished  for  his  acquirements  in  general  literature.  He 
was  a  voluminous  writer,  but  "his  language,"  says  a  learned  cri- 
tic of  modern  times,  "is  neither  elegant  nor  perspicuous;  and 
where  it  aims  at  elegance  and  sublimity,  it  is  usually  turgid  and 
perplexed."  The  most  valuable  of  his  works  extant,  and,  per- 
haps the  most  valuable  of  any  he  wrote  or  published,  is  his  "Ec- 
clesiastical History,"  which  contains  the  history  of  the  church 
from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  the  death  of  Licinius,  a  period  of  324 
years,  and  furnishes  the  principal  information  we  possess  con- 
cerning the  first  ages  of  Christianity. 

About  the  time  of  Constantine  flourished  Ossian,  the  bard  of 
Morven,  one  of  Caledonia's  most  celebrated  bards,  and  who  is 
justly  entitled  to  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  history  of  literature. 
Few  poets  of  ancient  or  modern  times  surpass  this  "son  of  the 
mist,"  in  the  chief  requisites  of  a  poet;  in  energy  and  boldness 
of  language,  sublimity  of  style  and  grandeur  of  imagery.  Op- 
pressed as  polite  literature  was,  under  Commodus  and  his  suc- 
cessors, the  "tuneful  nine"  seem  to  have  fled  the  mild  and  genial 
climates  of  Greece  and  Rome,  and  taken  refuge  among  the 
mountains  of  the  north ;  and  amidst  the  dearth  of  political  talent 
in  the  south  of  Europe,  it  is  grateful  and  refreshing  to  listen  to 
the  notes  of  the  minstrel,  resounding  among  Caledonia's  cloud- 
capt  hills. 

Ossian  was  the  eldest  son  of  Fingal,  king  of  Morven,  whose 
dominions  lay  among  the  mountains  in  the  west  of  Scotland. 
Fingal  was  celebrated  as  a  warrior  amongst  the  warlike  chief- 
tains of  his  time;  "he  was  terrible  as  the  spirit  of  Trenmor, 
when  in  a  whirlwind  he  comes  to  Morven  to  see  the  children  of 
his  pride;  he  was  like  a  dark  and  stormy  cloud,  edged  round 
with  the  lightning  of  heaven."  Early  in  life  Ossian  married 
Everallin,  the  "dark  haired"  daughter  of  Branno,  one  of  the 
many  kings  who  then  ruled  in  Ireland;  by  her  he  had  one  son, 
Oscar,  afterwards  distinguished  as  a  warrior,  and  who  was  killed 
in  battle  with  Cairbar,  king  of  Ireland.  In  the  fourth  book  of 
Fingal,  he  speaks  of  his  courtship  of  Everallin.  To  her  he  ap- 
pears to  have  been  tenderly  attached,  and  frequently  alludes  to 
her  in  his  poems.  Everallin  died  in  giving  birth  to  Oscar,  and 
it  does  not  appear  that  Ossian  ever  married  again.  At  the  peri- 
od, and  in  the  country,  of  which  we  arc  now  speaking,  it  was  not 


,204  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

unusual  for  the  warrior  and  the  bard  to  be  united,  hence  we  find 
that  Ossian  was  as  renowned  in  war,  as  became  his  high  lineager 
as  he  was  distinguished  as  a  bard ;  thus,  we  often  find  him  in  the 
thickest  of  the  fight,  dealing  death  among  his  foes;  "were  his 
steps  covered  with  darkness,  yet  would  not  Ossian  fly;  his  soul 
would  meet  him  and  say,  does  the  bard  of  Selma  fear  the  foe? 
No:  his  joy  is  in  the  midst  of  battle."  Ossian  lived  to  an  advan- 
ced age,  and  became  blind;  he  survived  all  his  family  and  the 
companions  of  his  earl}  days.  In  the  decrepitude  of  age,  and 
blind  withal,  he  appears  to  have  enjoyed  the  society  ofMalvina, 
the  betrothed  wife  of  Oscar,  whom  he  also  survived,  and  whose 
death  he  thus  feelingly  laments:  "Malvina!  where  art  thou  with 
thy  songs,  with  the  soft  sound  of  thy  steps?  Pleasant  be  thy 
rest,  O  lovely  beam!  Soon  hast  thou  set  on  our  hills!  the  steps 
of  thy  departure  were  stately,  like  the  moon  on  the  blue  trem- 
bling wave.  But  thou  hast  left  us  in  darkness,  first  of  the  maids 
of  Lutha!  Soon  hast  thou  set,  daughter  of  generous  Toscar! 
But  thou  risest  like  the  beam  of  the  east,  among  the  spirits  of 
thy  friends,  where  they  sit  in  their  stormy  halls,  the  chambers  of 
the  thunder." 

Ossian  lived  in  a  rudo  and  barbarous  age,  and  in  a  country 
where  the  refinements  and  luxuries  of  Roman  manners  had  not 
reached.  He  is  a  poet  of  nature,  and  his  works  will  hold  a  high 
rank,  not  only  among  the  existing  monuments  of  the  literature 
of  ancient  nations,  but  as  an  example  of  grandeur  and  sublimi- 
ty of  style,  which  the  artificial  poetry  of  modern  times  has  not 
been  able  to  reach.  In  his  poems  we  have  a  striking  picture  of 
the  manners  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  and  of  the  chieftain 
in  his  hall,  in  his  camp,  in  battle  and  in  the  chase.  Valor  and 
skill  in  war  are  the  themes  which  generally  occupy  his  pen,  be- 
cause in  all  rude  nations,  such  qualities  are  most  highly  valued. 
He  is,  however,  not  unmindful  of  the  more  gentle  and  amiable 
virtues  of  parental  and  filial  tenderness,  and  his  frequent  allu- 
sions to  the  death  of  Everallin  and  Oscar  show,  that  he  posses- 
sed a  heart  susceptible  of  the  most  refined  feelings  and 
tender  emotions.  The  style  of  Ossian,  like  that  of  all  the  an- 
cient bards,  is  bold,  energetic  and  highly  figurative,  expressing 
the  noblest  sentiments  by  the  most  apposite  images.  He  does 
not  indulge  in  that  redundancy  of  expression,  with  which  mo- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^Ob 

dern  poets  too  often  clothe  their  ideas,  frequently  making  obscu- 
rity more  obscure. 

On  the  publication  of  a  translation  of  the  poems  of  Ossian  by 
Macpherson,  they  were  immediately  pronounced  forgeries,  and 
the  existence  of  such  a  person  as  Ossian  declared  fabulous.  The 
authenticity  of  the  poems  being  thus  assailed,  a  wide  field  fordis- 
cussion  was  opened,  into  which  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
scholars  of  the  day  entered  with  much  zeal,  and  their  genuineness 
was  combated  and  defended  with  great  learning  and  ability. 
Although  we  find  some  who  regard  them  as  the  sole  productions 
of  the  genius  of  Macpherson,  yet,  from  careful  researches  in  the 
Highlands  and  the  Hebrides,  so  many  poems  of  a  similar  charac- 
ter are  found  to  have  been  preserved  among  the  people,  that 
their  authenticity  is  now  generally  admitted,  and  Ossian,  in- 
stead of  being  looked  upon  as  a  creature  of  the  imagination,  is 
acknowledged  to  have  possessed  a  "local  habitation,"  and  was 
renowned  in  "days  of  yore"  as  a  warrior  and  a  poet.  4 

As  Ossian  belonged  to  that  class  known  by  the  name  of  min- 
strels or  bards,  we  will  here  take  the  opportunity  of  saying  a 
few  words  concerning  them.  The  Celtic  and  Scandinavian  na- 
tions, were  distinguished  for  their  bards  or  minstrels.*  The 
use  of  letters  being  unknown  to  them,  the  history  of  the  times 
and  the  martial  deeds  of  their  heroes  and  chieftains,  were  trans- 
mitted from  age  to  age,  in  the  songs  of  their  bards.  According  to 
Tacitus  in  his  "Manners  of  the  Germans,"!  the  recital  by  their 
bards,  of  the  valiant  achievements  of  their  warriors,  was  cm- 
ployed  by  the  Germans  to  inflame  their  courage  on  the  eve  of 
battle.  In  much  later  times  the  Scandinavian  bards,  or  Scalds, 
as  they  were  called,  were  in  high  estimation;  they  always  at- 
tended their  kings,  and  were  often  employed  by  them  in  offices 
of  the  highest  trust.  Among  the  Celtic  nations,  the  bards  also 
enjoyed  high  privileges;  they  were  exempted  from  taxes  and 
military  services,  and  their  persons  were  held  sacred  and  invio- 
lable. When  they  attended  in  the  field  of  battle,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  noting  passing  events,  they  were  protected  by  a  guard, 
and  at  all  festivals  and  public  assemblies,  they  were  seated  near 

*  Scandinavia  included  Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark,  and  the  Celtic  nations 
that  part  of  Europe  which  lies  west  and  south  of  the  Rhine  beyond  the  Pyrenees,  to- 
gether with  the  Britons,  Irish,  Welch,  Highlanders,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  Western 
I«Je«.  t  Chap  III. 


20(5  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

the  king  or  chieftain.  The  bards  of  Britain  were  originally  di- 
vided into  two  classes,  namely :  the  sacred  or  religious  bards, 
who  sung  hymns  in  honor  of  the  gods,  and  the  secular  bards, 
who  sung  of  battles.  In  Wales  an  annual  congress  was  held, 
in  which  he  who  was  most  distinguished,  was  honored  with  a 
silver  chain.  As  writing  was  then  unknown,  and  tradition  was 
the  only  means  of  preserving  the  history  of  events,  these  assem- 
blies were  of  great  importance,  and  show  the  consequence  of 
the  bards  in  other  respects  than  mere  reciters  of  poetry — they 
were  the  "brief  abstract  and  chronicles  of  the  times."  In  these 
assemblies  whatever  was  considered  of  sufficient  importance  to 
be  transmitted  to  future  ages,  was  examined  with  the  most  scru- 
tinizing care,  and,  if  approved,  was  afterwards  recited  at  pro- 
vincial meetings,  and  committed  to  the  memory  of  their  disci- 
ples. It  is  not  the  least  remarkable  fact,  with  regard  to  this  in- 
stitution of  the  bards,  that  it  is  considered  by  many  as  the  parent 
source  from  whence  freemasonry  sprung.  The  fraternity,  if 
they  choose  to  examine  the  subject,  can  readily  determine,  whe- 
ther there  is  such  a  resemblance  between  their  manner  of  com- 
municating and  preserving  the  tenets  of  their  order,  and  the 
practices  of  the  bards  as  would  justify  such  an  opinion.  In 
the  time  of  Edward  III.  the  bards  were  numerous  in  Wales,  and 
so  great  was  the  effect  of  their  songs,  in  recounting  the  warlike 
deeds  of  their  ancient  warriors,  they  so  inflamed  the  courage  of 
their  countrymen,  that  the  conquest  was  far  from  being  an  easy 
one.  Edward  afterwards  commanded  a  general  massacre  of 
the  Welch  bards,  to  prevent  any  future  excitement  of  their  na* 
live  courage  to  avenge  their  wrongs. 


Cold  is  Cadvvallo's  tongue 
That  hush'd  the  stormy  main: 
Brave  Urien  sleeps  upon  his  craggy  bed . 
Mountains  ye  mourn  in  vain 
Modred,  whose  magic  song 
Made  huge  Plinlimmon  bow  his  cloud-topp'd  hear!.' 

On  dreary  Arvon's  shore  they  lie, 
Smear'd  with  gore  and  ghastly  pale: 
Far,  far  aloof  th'  affrighted  ravens  sail, 
The  famish'd  eagle  screams  and  passes  by. 

Gray. 

Among  no  people  were  the  bards  or  minstrels,  held  in  higher 
estimation  than  among  the  Highlanders  of  Scotland.     They 


iJfa    HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^07 

almost  always  employed  as  ambassadors  between  contend- 
ing chiefs,  and  their  characters  were  held  in  the  same  reverence 
as  in  the  days  of  Homer;  even  he  who  would  not  have  hesita- 
ted to  murder  his  brother  to  gratify  his  ambition,  would  have 
"feared  to  stretch  his  sword  to  the  bards."  In  later  times,  a 
s-uccession  of  bards  was  retained  in  the  service  of  every  High- 
land chieftain,  whose  special  care  it  was,  to  hand  down  the  me- 
morable actions  of  the  chieftains  and  warriors  of  the  clan.  As 
soon  as  the  knowledge  of  letters  became  generally  diffused,  the 
custom  of  retaining  bards  in  the  service  of  great  families  fell 
into  disuse  in  most  countries,  and  they  degenerated  into  strolling 
ballad  singers.  Scotland  alone  retained  them  until  about  the 
time  of  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms,  in  consequence  of  the 
Highland  chieftains  maintaining  a  stubborn  freedom  among  their 
mountains,  even  after  their  independence  as  a  nation  had  fallen 
before  British  power. 

Constantine  died  A.  D.  337,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  three 
sons,  Constantine  II,  Constantius  and  Constans.  The  impru- 
dent division  of  the  empire  between  the  three  brothers  caused, 
as  such  divisions  ever  will,  discontent  and  disturbances,  which 
terminated  in  the  defeat  and  death  of  Constantine  in  a  petty 
conflict,  and  in  the  assassination  of  Constans.  On  the  death  of 
his  brothers  Constantius  became  sole  emperor.  He  possessed, 
perhaps,  more  religious  zeal  than  his  father,  and  was  mores 
deeply  versed  in  theology,  but  he  possessed  few  of  the  qualifica- 
tions necessary  for  the  government  of  a  mighty  empire,  particu- 
larly when  agitated  by  domestic  troubles  and  foreign  wars.  His 
reign  was  nearly  one  continued  scene  of  religious  disputation, 
occasioned  by  the  violent  and  disgraceful  contests  between  the 
Catholics  and  Arians,  who  appeared  to  think,  that  true  religion 
consisted  in  fiery  controversies  about  points  of  doctrine,  and  not 
in  pursuing  the  humble  path  of  duty,  prescribed  by  their  "Lord 
and  master,"  and  in  practising  the  principles  of  benevolence  and 
brotherly  love  laid  down  in  the  scriptures,  which  they  professed 
to  take  for  their  guide.  This  reign,  therefore,  presents  nothing 
remarkable,  or  worthy  of  notice  in  the  history  of  literature, 
unless  the  volumes  written  in  favor  of,  and  against  the  doctrine 
of  consubstaniiality^  which  agitated  the  church,  should  be  so  re- 
garded. On  this  point  we  think  there  can  be  but  one  opinion, 
that  such  controversies  are  as  uninterQsting  as  they  are  useless. 


208  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

and  tend  rather  to  injure  than  promote,  the  cause  of  true  reli- 
gion. From  these  disputes  Constantius  was  scarcely  diverted 
by  the  formidable  power  of  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  which  threa- 
tened to  overturn  the  throne  of  the  Caesars,  already  tottering  to 
its  base  ;  and  whilst  Mesopotamia  was  overran  by  the  Persian 
host,  the  attention  of  Constantius  was  directed  to  the  ecclesias- 
tical councils  of  Rimini  and  Silencia,  instead  of  adopting  means 
to  repel  the  invader.  This  conduct  of  the  emperor  was  far 
from  pleasing  the  army,  and  made  way,  A.  D.  361,  for  the  ele- 
vation to  the  imperial  dignity,  of  Julian,  surnamed  the  Apostate. 

Few  princes  have  ever  ascended  a  throne  under  more  favora- 
ble circumstances,  so  far  as  regarded  public  opinion,  than  Julian. 
He  had  gained  the  affections  of  the  soldiery  by  his  strict  atten- 
tion to  their  wants,  and  by  sharing  in  all  their  fatigues.  As  go- 
vernor of  Gaul,  he  discharged  the  duties  of  his  office  with  mode- 
ration and  justice ;  and  so  effectually  did  he  conceal  his  religious 
opinions,  that  even  the  watchful  eye  of  Hillary,  bishop  of  Poic- 
tiers,  was  deceived.  The  pious  prelate  took  every  opportunity 
of  sounding  his  praise,  and  spoke  of  him  as  one  who  would  main- 
tain the  honor  of  the  church,  and  uphold  the  true  faith.  But 
the  bishop  was  deceived.  Julian  in  the  early  part  of  his  life 
Avas  carefully  instructed  in  literature  and  science  by  Christian 
professors,  and  while  residing  in  ISicomedia,  he  was  expressly 
forbid  by  the  emperor  Constantius,  to  attend  the  lectures  of  the 
heathen  philosophers,  particularly  those  of  Libanus,  a  philoso- 
pher of  great  reputation  at  that  time.  This  prohibition,  how- 
ever, only  excited  a  desire  to  attend  the  pagan  schools,  and  be- 
come acquainted  with  their  different  systems.  Regardless  of 
the  positive  injunctions  of  the  emperor,  he  took  every  opportu- 
nity of  conversing  with  pagan  philosophers,  and  soon  became  at- 
tached to  that  system  of  Platonic  philosophy,  of  which  we  have 
spoken  above,  but  which  differed  so  essentially  from  the  genuine 
and  uncorrupted  system  of  its  renowned  founder.  Julian  finish- 
ed his  studies  at  Athens,  and  was  there  initiated  into  the  Eleusy- 
nian  mysteries,  which,  no  doubt,  had  the  effect  of  strengthening 
and  confirming  his  predilection  for  the  ancient  worship.  Be- 
sides, he  there  studied  the  purer  system  of  Plato,  and  adopted 
the  costume  of  a  philosopher. 

Thus  educated,  it  was  not  at  all  surprisig  that  Julian,  when 
fcrmly  seated  upon  the  throne,  should  have  exhibited  strong 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^     £fe     20$ 

symptoms  of  attachment  to  the  pagan,  and  aversion  to  the  Chris- 
tian system  of  religion.  He  determined  to  restore  the  pagan 
worship,  and  to  that  end  assumed  the  almost  forgotten  office  of 
sovereign  pontiff,  and  often  descended  from  the  throne  to  em- 
brue  his  hands  in  the  blood  of  the  slaughtered  victim.  Although 
with  apparent  frankness  he  proclaimed  free  toleration  to  the 
Christian  worship,  his  great  object  was,  its  final  subversion,  and 
the  complete  restoration  of  the  pagan  rites  and  ceremonies. 
Under  the  mask  of  moderation,  he  attacked  Christianity  with 
consummate  art.  He  dismissed  by  degrees,  Christian  professors 
from  all  public  employments  and  closed  their  schools,  whilst  he 
was  himself  surrounded  by  philosophers,  whose  hatred  of  Chris- 
tianity equalled  his.  Julian  possessed  great  abilities,  he  was 
equally  qualified  for  the  cabinet  or  the  field,  and  had  he  not  been 
cut  off  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his  age,  in  a  battle  with  the 
Persians,  he  might,  in  a  considerable  degree,  have  effected  his  ob- 
ject. The  portrait  of  Julian,  like  that  of  the  first  Constantine, 
has  been  variously  exhibited,  as  the  lineaments  have  been  por- 
trayed by  a  pagan,  or  a  Christian  pencil.  It  is  acknowledged, 
however,  by  both,  that  he  was  more  distinguished  for  a  love  of 
learning,  and  afforded  it  more  encouragement,  than  any  empe- 
ror who  had,  for  a  series  of  years,  filled  the  throne  of  Augustus. 
He  possessed  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  tenets  of  the 
Platonic  school,  as  taught  by  the  Alexandrian  and  Athenian  phi- 
losophers, but  his  philosophy  was  tinctured  with  magic  and 
other  superstitious  observances,  unworthy  his  otherwise  enlight- 
ened mind.  Amidst  all  his  public  duties,  and  the  cares  of 
empire,  he  still  found  leisure  to  devote  to  literary  pursuits,  and 
to  the  composition  of  various  works  on  different  subjects,  many 
of  which  are  lost.  Besides  other  works  still  extant,  he  wrote  a 
history  of  Gaul,  and  a  satire  upon  all  the  Roman  emperors,  from 
Julius  Caesar  to  Constantine. 

Having  heretofore  spoken  of  the  decline  of  arts  and  literature 
in  Athens,  after  its  subjection  to  the  Roman  empire,  and  having 
several  times  alluded  to  its  schools  subsequently  established,  we 
will  here  observe,  that  although  for  many  years  almost  deserted 
by  learned  men,  the  schools  of  Athens  again  came  into  notice 
under  the  reigns  of  Adrian  and  the  Antonines,  who  did  much 
to  restore  them  to  their  ancient  honors  and  celebrity.  Adrian,  a 
patron  of  learning,  founded  a  library  and  established  schools  of 

27 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

rhetoric  and  the  principal  sects  of  philosophy.  These  schools 
were  liberally  endowed,  and  soon  became  distinguished  for  the 
number  of  scholars  that  attended  them,  and  the  erudition  of 
their  instructers.  Adrian  assigned  to  the  teachers  salaries 
from  the  public  purse,  which  were  discontinued  by  Constan- 
tine  and  his  sons,  but  were  restored  by  Julian.  Having  ordered 
the  Christian  schools  to  be  closed,  those  of  Alexandria  and  Athens 
were  the  chief  instruments  by  means  of  which,  Julian  expected 
to  overturn  the  Christian  system  and  restore  paganism  to  its  for- 
meri  nfluence.  He  hoped,  that  by  disseminating  the  principles 
of  philosophy  by  means  of  celebrated  teachers,  by  ridiculing  the 
Christian  religion,  and  by  rekindling  the  fatal  dissensions  of  the 
Catholics  and  Arians,  which  had  already  been  productive  of  so 
much  mischief,  that  in  a  short  time  every  vestige  of  Christianity 
would  be  rooted  out,  the  professors  of  which  he  pretended/  to  re- 
gard "rather  as  objects  of  compassion  than  hatred,  who  aban- 
doned the  worship  of  the  gods,  to  adore  the  remains  of  carcasses 
or  the  bones  of  dead  men." 

Julian  was  succeeded  by  Jovian^  captain  of  the  guards,  who 
had  been  educated  in  the  principles  of  Christianity,  and1  who^ 
on  his  accession,  was  as  zealous  in  his  endeavors  to  restore  the 
Christian  worship,  as  his  predecessor  had  been  to  destroy  it. 
For  this  purpose,  therefore,  he  issued  an  edict  re-establishing  the 
Christian  as  the  religious  system  of  the  empire,  and  abolishing 
the  pagan  worship,  at  the  same  time  observing  such  a  course 
of  conduct  as  was  sanctioned  by  the  public  good,  and  the  dic- 
tates of  sound  policy.  He  left  every  one  free  to  exercise  his 
own  religion  according  to  the  dictates  of  his  own  conscience, 
and  in  a  council  held  at  Antioch,  where  the  Nicene  creed  was 
confirmed,  he  declared  his  intention  to  molest  no  man  for  his  be- 
lief. Jovian  reigned  only  one  year,  but  in  that  short  time,  "the 
genius  of  paganism,  which  had  been  fondly  raised  and  cherished 
by  the  acts  of  Julian,  sunk  irrecoverably  in  the  dust." 

Jovian  was  succeeded  by  Valentinian  I,  Valens,  Gratian, 
Valentinian  II,  and  lastly  by  Theodosius  the  Great,  who  ascen- 
ded the  throne  A.  D.  379,  and  died  A.  D.  395. 

Between  the  time  of  Julian  and  the  reign  of  Theodosius,  flou- 
rished several  Latin  writers  and  philosophers  of  some  note,  among 
whom  was  Augustine,  a  distinguished  father  of  the  church,  af- 
terwards canonised.  He  was  horn  atTagaste.  in  Africn.  in  (he 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  211 

year  354.  He  possessed,  says  one  of  his  admirers,  a  "sublime 
genius,  an  uninterrupted  zeal  and  zealous  pursuit  of  truth,  an. 
indefatigable  application,  invincible  patience,  sincere  piety 
and  a  subtle  and  lively  wit."  At  an  early  age  he  appears  to 
have  had  considerable  taste  for  learning,  and  became  familiar 
with  the  writings  of  Cicero,  and  deeply  studied  the  works  of 
Aristotle.  The  abstract  notions  of  the  divine  nature,  which  he 
collected  from  the  philosophy  of  the  latter,  made  such  an  im- 
pression upon  his  mind,  that  he  rejected  some  of  the  leading- 
principles  of  the  Christian  faith,  and  was  led  to  adopt  the  Mani- 
chean  doctrine  of  two  independent  principles,  one  good,  the 
other  evil,  which,  in  its  turn,  he  rejected,  and  adopted  others 
equally  untenable.  Unsettled  in  his  faith,  he  opened  at  Milan 
a  school  of  rhetoric,  for  which  he  seems  to  have  been  well  qua- 
lified. Here  he  met  with  St.  Ambrose,  then,  or  afterwards, 
bishop  of  Milan,  who,  by  dint  of  argument  and  the  force  of  elo- 
quence, brought  him  back  to  the  fold  of  Christ.  After  this  he 
devoted  himself  exclusively  to  the  service  of  religion,  becoming 
one  of  its  most  able  and  -zealous  advocates,  and  was  finally  ad- 
vanced to  the  dignity  of  bishop  of  Hippo  in  Africa.  St.  Au- 
gustine wrote  many  treatises  in  support  of  the  doctrines 
of  the  church,  which  enjoyed  considerable  celebrity  in  his 
day;  his  principal  and  most  celebrated  work  is  entitled, 
*De  Cwitatc  -De/,"  in  which  he  sets  forth  the  beauties  of  the 
Christian  system,  and  enforces  the  necessity  of  obedience  to  the 
commands  of  God,  in  order  to  insujre  peace  of  mind  here,  and 
eternal  happiness  hereafter. 

Contemporary  with  St.  Augustine  flourished  a  female  philo- 
sopher of  the  eclectic  school,  named  Hypaiia,  celebrated  for  her 
extensive  learning,  her  devotion  to  the  principles  of  her  school 
and  her  tragical  and  untimely  end.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a 
distinguished  mathematician  of  Alexandria,  and  possessing  an 
acute  and  penetrating  judgment,  her  talents  were  cultivated 
with  great  care  by  her  father  and  her  preceptors  in  the  various 
branches  of  education.  She  entered  with  uncommon  ardor  upon 
the  study  of  philosophy,  and  prosecuted  it  with  so  much  success, 
that  she  at  length  became  a  public  teacher,  and  her  house  was 
the  resort  of  persons  of  learning  and  distinction.  At  this  time 
•Cyril  filled  the  patriarchal  chair  of  Alexandria.  He  was  a  man 
•of  great  violence  of  temper,  and  suspecting  that  Hypatia  was 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

concerned  in  the  opposition  that  Orestes,  the  prefect  of  Alexan- 
dria, offered  to  his  ecclesiastical  tyranny,  he  caused  a  mob  to 
seize  her,  as  she  was  one  day  returning  from  the  schools,  and 
carry  her  to  the  Cassarian  church,  where  she  was  inhumanly 
murdered,  and  her  body,  after  being  torn  limb  from  limb,  was 
committed  to  the  flames.  This  disgraceful  event  occurred  in 
the  reign  of  Theodosius  II,  A.  D.  415.  Contemporary  writers 
speak  of  her  as  being  remarkable  for  the  correctness  of  her  de- 
portment and  purity  of  life — slander  did  not  dare  to  whisper  a 
syllable  against  her  virtue.  From  any  participation  in  this  cruel 
and  unexpected  murder,  Cyril  endeavored  to  exculpate  himself, 
but  as  the  chief  person  concerned  in  the  outrage  was  not  only 
protected  by  him,  but  enjoyed  his  special  favor,  his  participation 
in  the  foul  crime  cannot  be  doubted. 

During  this  period  also  flourished  Ausonius,  who  was  born  at 
Bourdeaux  in  the  fourth  century.  He  was  educated  at  Tou- 
louse under  the  direction  of  his  uncle,  who  was  a  professor  of 
rhetoric,  and  he  is  said  to  have  made  uncommon  progress  in  the 
various  studies  assigned  him.  At  thirty  years  of  age,  he  was 
appointed  teacher  of  grammar,  and  soon  after  teacher  of  rheto- 
ric, in  his  native  city.  He  lived  to  a  great  age,  and  under  suc- 
cessive emperors,  he  filled  various  public  offices,  among  others 
that  of  consul.  He  enjoyed  considerable  reputation  as  a  poet 
in  his  day,  but  his  poetical  genius  and  talents  have  been  gene- 
rally overrated.  His  productions  bear  evident  marks  of  negli- 
gence, but  faulty  as  they  are,  they  rise  above  the  ordinary  level 
of  his  contemporaries. 

Under  the  government  of  Theodosius,  the  most  vigorous  and 
effectual  measures  were  taken  for  the  suppression  of  the  pagan 
worship  throughout  the  empire.  The  historians  of  his  time  re- 
present the  character  of  Theodosius  in  the  most  favorable  light, 
and  as  eminently  deserving  the  epithet  of  great,  which  his  grate- 
ful subjects  spontaneously  bestowed  upon  him.  He,  no  doubt, 
possessed  great  qualities,  and  had  his  reign  been  longer,  many 
of  those  unfortunate  events  that  occurred  under  his  successors, 
might  have  been  averted,  and  the  Roman  empire  preserved,  at 
least  for  some  time  longer,  from  destruction.  He  appears  to 
have  received  a  liberal  education,  liberal  at  least  for  the  age  in 
which  he  lived,  when  literature  was  rapidly  declining;  and  he 
appears,  also,  to  have  liberally  encouraged  such  talents  and  such 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  213 

arts  as  were  useful  in  their  nature,  and  calculated  to  improve 
the  condition  of  mankind.  Happy  would  it  have  been  for  the 
world,  had  the  successors  of  Theodosius  possessed  his  enterpri- 
sing genius,  his  vigorous  mind,  and  his  anxiety  to  improve  the 
condition  of  the  human  race  suhject  to  their  control,  by  the 
enactment  of  wholesome  laws.  Theodosius  reigned  but  sixteen 
years,  and  on  his  death,  A.  D.  395,  the  Roman  empire  was  divi- 
ded between  his  two  sons,  Arcadius  and  Honorius;  the  former 
was  styled  Emperor  of  the  East,  the  latter  Emperor  of  the  West. 
Neither  of  them  were  capable  of  wielding  the  sceptre  of  their 
father,  and  the  consequence  was,  that  the  western  empire  soon 
fell  before  the  victorious  arms  of  the  northern  barbarians,  who 
commenced  their  incursions  in  the  reign  of  Valens,  but  were 
kept  in  check  by  the  power  of  Theodosius.  These  invaders 
were  wandering  tribes  who  traversed  the  immense  plains  of 
Tartary,  and  were  renowned  for  their  invincible  courage,  and 
the  rapidity  of  their  conquests;  war  was  an  occupation  in  which 
they  delighted,  making  a  sport  of  danger  and  even  braving  death 
with  marks  of  joy.  They  left  their  native  deserts  in  search  of 
milder  climates  and  more  fertile  lands,  with  no  other  title  than 
their  swords.  To  such  enemies,  inured  to  hardships  and  all  the 
vicissitudes  of  war,  with  victory  perching  on  their  standards, 
and  commanded  by  such  generals  as  Alaric,Genseric  and  Atilla, 
the  feeble  and  dissolute  legions  of  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  could 
oppose  no  effectual  resistance,  and  in  less  than  one  hundred 
years  the  mighty  fabric  of  Rome's  imperial  power  crumbled 
into  ruins.  The  Visigoths  possessed  themselves  of  Spain;  the 
Franks  of  Gaul;  the  Ostrogoths  of  Italy,  and  the  Huns  of  Pan- 
ronia,  or  Hungary. 

The  incursions  of  the  barbarians,  and  the  consequent  fall  of 
the  western  empire,  in  the  reign  of  Romulus  Augustus,  and  its 
division  into  separate  kingdoms,  were  extremely  prejudicial  to 
the  cultivation  and  dissemination  of  learning.  The  continual 
wars  and  tumultuous  scenes  which  followed,  the  religious  con- 
tests that  agitated  Europe,  and  the  general  dislike  of  the  new 
settlers  to  the  arts  of  peace,  would  have  totally  extinguished 
what  remained  of  a  knowledge  of  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences, 
had  they  not  found  protection  among  the  higher  clergy,  and  a 
refuge  in  the  cells  of  the  monks.  They  were  cultivated  just 
enough  to  keep  them  from  perishing,  by  those  who  scarcely  un- 


,>J4  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

derstood  their  value,  and  in  a  manner  more  the  result  of  chance* 
than  any  real  desire  for  their  preservation.  Those  persons  who 
had  devoted  themselves  to  a  monastic  life,  were  obliged  to  em- 
ploy a  portion  of  the  day  in  studying  the  works  of  the  fathers 
and  doctors  of  the  church,  which  were  regarded  as  rich  trea- 
sures of  heavenly  wisdom,  scarcely  inferior  to  the  sacred  scrip- 
tures themselves.  In  collecting  the  various  works  of  the  fathers 
to  form  monastic  libraries,  many  volumes  of  ancient  Greek  and 
Roman  learning  found  their  way  to  their  shelves.  These  works 
were  transcribed  by  'monks,  whose  bodily  infirmities  rendered 
them  incapable  of  more  severe  labor,  and  who  thus  employed 
themselves,  as  much  to  relieve  the  ennui  attendant  upon  their 
secluded  and  monotonous  life,  as  the  actual  desire  of  multiply- 
ing copies  of  pagan  works,  and  disseminating  a  knowledge  of 
pagan  literature.  To  these  men,  who  were  really  too  ignorant 
to  avail  themselves  of  the  mental  treasures  within  their  grasp, 
are  we  indebted  for  the  preservation  of  those  ancient  writings 
which  now  delight  the  scholar,  and  instruct  and  improve  man- 
kind. In  the  schools  which  were,  in  -some  places,  attached  to 
the  churches,  but  little  attention  was  paid  even  to  the  rudiments 
of  learning,  because  those  who  were  appointed  to  teach,  were 
not  qualified  for  the  office,  and  because  the  dignified  clergy  in- 
culcated the  pernicious  maxim,  that  learning  was  injurious  to 
piety,  and  obstructed  the  progress  of  religion.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances it  will  be  readily  seen,  that  learning  would  rapidly 
decline,  and  ignorance  and  superstition  occupy  its  place. 

For  some  time  the  state  of  learning  was  more  flourishing  in 
the  eastern  empire,  which  did  not  suffer  so  much  from  the  hos- 
tile invasion  of  the  barbarians.  The  emperors,  although  deep- 
ly engaged  in  the  religious  disputes  of  the  times,  encouraged  a 
spirit  of  emulation  by  the  rewards  and  honors  they  distributed 
among  those  who  cultivated  the  different  branches  of  learning. 
In  the  sixth  century,  the  sciences  were  cultivated  with  much 
Jess  ardor,  and  literature  became  so  depressed  by  the  strong  arna 
of  power,  that  the  number  of  men  of  learning  was  greatly  dimi- 
nished. Much  of  this  depression  may  be  attributed  to  the  nar- 
row and  contracted  views  of  the  emperor  Justinian,  who  reigned 
in  the  sixth  century,  and  whose  pandects  and  institutes  have  con- 
tributed more  to  his  renown,  than  his  talents  for  government,  or 
?-he  victories  of  his  generals,  Justinian  was  a  zealous  Christian. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

and  valued  himself  upon  his  knowledge,  and  his  skill  in  theology, 
and  as  the  schools  of  pagan  learning  offended  his  orthodoxy,  he 
determined  to  shut  up  the  schools  of  philosophy  that  remained 
at  Athens,  and  deprived  the  professors  of  the  salaries  which  his 
predecessors  had  allowed  them  from  the  public  purse.  By  thus 
closing  the  schools  of  Athens,  which,  at  that  time,  were  the  prin- 
cipal, if  not  the  only  seats  of  learning,  in  which  the  literature 
and  philosophy  of  the  ancients  were  taught,  and  the  chief  means 
of  acquiring  knowledge  being  cut  off,  the  consequence  was,  that 
in  a  short  time  the  Greek  language  fell  so  much  into  neglect, 
that  in  the  western  empire  few  were  found  capable  of  reading 
the  ancient  Greek  writers  in  the  original,  but  were  obliged  to 
content  themselves  with  careless  and  imperfect  translations. 
In  consequence  of  the  edict  of  Justinian  above-mentioned,  the 
sect  of  modern  platonics,  of  which  we  have  already  taken  some 
notice,  ceased  to  exist,  and  upon  its  destruction  arose  the  mo- 
dern peripatetic  school,  or  school  founded  upon  the  principle? 
of  Aristotle,  which  were  made  known  to  the  Christians  of  E» 
cope,  through  the  Arabian  philosophers  of  Spain.* 


CHAPTER  xv. 

History  of  literature  ^  from  the  foundation  of  the  French  monarchy 
by  Clovis,  to  the  reign  of  Charlemagne. 

BEFORE  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  France,  or 
Gaul,  as  it  was  then  called,  learning  was  confined  to  the  Druids, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Greek  colony  at  Marseilles. 

The  Druids  were  the  philosophers  as  well  as  the  priests  of 
Gaul,  and  exercised  great  influence  over  the  minds  of  the  peo- 
ple. They  were  divided  into  several  orders,  and  the  whole 
were  governed  by  an  arch-Druid,  whose  authority  was  supreme. 
He  was  chosen  from  among  those  who  were  most  distinguished 
for  their  knowledge,  and  as  the  station  was  one  of  great  power,, 
the  election  often  produced  such  excitement  as  to  cause  a  resort 

*  Mosh.  Ecc.  Hist. ;   Enf.  Hist,  of  Phil. ;  Gib.  Rom.  Emp. ,-  Millot's  Gen.  Hist. ;  Mao 
pherson's  Ossian;  Edin.  Enc.art.  Ossian;  SismomU's  Hist,  des  Rep.  Ital 


21  ti  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

to  arms.  There  were  three  orders,  the  Bards,  the  Eubates  and 
the  Druids.  The  Bards  sung  the  praises  of  their  illustrious 
men,  and  were  the  poets  and  musicians;  the  Eubates  made  re- 
searches into  the  order  of  things,  and  endeavored  to  lay  open  the 
hidden  secrets  of  nature,  and  the  Druids,  who  possessed  the 
highest  power,  gave  laws  to  the  Bards  and  Eubates,  who  were 
obliged,  on  every  occasion,  to  give  precedence  to  them,  and  were 
not  allowed  to  do  any  thing  without  their  consent  and  approba- 
tion. 

The  powers  and  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  Druids,  properly 
so  called,  were  very  extensive.  No  sacred  rite  could  be  per- 
formed without  their  aid,  and  through  them  the  people  offered 
up  their  thanksgivings,  sacrifices  and  prayers.  Their  persons 
were  esteemed  sacred  and  inviolable;  they  were  exempted  from 
all  taxes  and  military  services;  they  exercised  a  civil  and  crim- 
inal jurisdiction,  and  those  who  did  not  obey  their  decrees,  were 
interdicted  the  sacrifices,  after  which  no  person  dared  to  hold 
communication  or  converse  with  them.  They  held  an  annual 
court  in  a  consecrated  grove,  and  before  them,  all  who  had  any 
private  suits  or  controversies  appeared,  and  were  bound  to  sub- 
mit to  their  decrees.  Like  the  Egyptian  priests  they  had  two 
sects  of  religious  doctrines  and  opinions,  one  of  which  they  com- 
municated to  their  favored  disciples,  who  at  the  time  of  their 
initiation  took  a  solemn  oath  to  keep  this  system  of  doctrines  a 
profound  secret.  In  order  that  they  might  be  delivered  with 
more  solemnity  and  preserved  with  more  care  from  vulgar  eyes, 
they  taught  their  mysteries  in  the  deepest  recesses  of  gloomy 
forests,  or  in  the  still  more  gloomy  caves  of  the  earth.  Caesar 
informs  us  that  the  principal  doctrines  of  the  Druids  were,  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the  existence  and  power  of  the  gods; 
that  they  believed  in  one  living  and  true  god,  whom  they  repre- 
sented in  various  forms,  and  under  different  characters  and 
names,  adapting  their  public  worship  to  what  they  conceived  to 
be  suited  to  vulgar  minds.  Their  doctrines  were  contained  in 
many  thousand  verses,  which  their  disciples  were  obliged  to 
commit  to  memory,  and  which  required  no  less  than  twenty 
years.  Some  writers  are  of  opinion,  that  they  taught  the  doc- 
trine of  the  transmigration  of  the  soul,  differing,  however,  from 
some  of  the  philosophers  of  the  Pythagorean  school  in  this,  that 
the  transmigration  was  from  one  human  body  to  another,  and 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  2j*j 

that  it  did  not  inhabit  the  bodies  of  other  animals.  Besides  the 
male  Druids,  there  were  also  Druidesses,  who  were  divided  into 
three  classes.  The  first  class  lived  in  great  retirement,  arid  pre- 
tended to  supernatural  knowledge  and  power,  to  foretell  future 
events,  to  cure  diseases,  and  to  raise  storms  and  calm  them  at 
their  will.  They  were  held  in  great  veneration  by  the  people, 
and  consulted  upon  almost  every  occasion  in  which  they  felt 
themselves  interested.  The  second  class  were  the  assistants  and 
companions  of  the  Druids,  and  were  married  women.  The 
third  class  performed  the  servile  work  of  the  temples,  the  sacri- 
fices and  dwellings. 

The  Druids  regarded  the  oak  and  the  mistletoe  that  grew 
upon  it,  with  peculiar  veneration,  and  as  the  immediate  gift  of 
heaven  for  the  most  valuable  purposes.  In  their  own  language 
they  called  it  the  all-healing,  to  express  the  healing  virtues  arid 
qualities  they  attached  to  it.  The  sixth  day  of  the  moon  was 
chosen  as  the  proper  time  to  gather  it,  which  was  done  with 
great  ceremony  by  one  of  the  priests,  who,  clothed  in  white,  as- 
cended the  tree  and  cut  it  off  with  a  golden  knife.  The  plant 
called  vervain  was  also  highly  esteemed  by  them  for  its  rare  qual- 
ities; from  it  they  extracted  an  ointment  considered  efficacious 
in  preventing  and  curing  all  diseases.  This  plant  they  gathered 
in  the  dog  days  and  in  a  moonless  night.  Things  of  this  sort, 
although  superstitious  and  absurd,  are  innocent  in  their  nature, 
but  how  can  we  reconcile  with  their  boasted  refinement,  their 
sacrifices  of  human  victims?  With  circumstances  of  savage 
cruelty,  upon  solemn  and  important  occasions,  they  sacrificed 
human  victims,  and  Pliny  says,  that  to  feed  upon  the  dead  bodies 
thus  offered  in  sacrifice,  they  esteemed  most  wholesome.  The 
victims  were  usually  selected  from  among  the  criminals  con- 
demned to  death;  but  when  none  of  these  were  to  be  had,  they 
did  not  scruple  to  sacrifice  innocent  persons. 

With  regard  to  the  learning  of  the  Druids  much  has  been  said 
oy  different  writers,  in  order  to  establish  their  claims  to  a  high 
state  of  intellectual  improvement.  Diogenes  Laertius,  who 
flourished  about  A.  D.  210,  places  them  in  the  same  rank,  in 
point  of  learning  and  philosophy,  with  the  Chaldeans,  the  Magi 
of  Persia,  and  the  Gymnosophists  of  India;  and  Caesar,  who  had 
ample  opportunities  of  making  himself  acquainted  with  their 


vF 
HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

pursuits,  says,  that  they  had  formed  large  systems  of  philosophy, 
that  required  twenty  years  of  unremitted  application  to  master, 
and  that  they  entertained  various  opinions  concerning  the  stars 
•and  their  motions,  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  and  the  world, 
and  the  general  nature  of  things.  Dr.  Henry,  the  learned  au- 
thor of  "The  History  of  Great  Britain,"  has  labored  at  som< 
length  to  prove,  that  the  British  Druids,  from  whom  it  is  supposed 
the  Druids  of  Gaul  received  their  origin,  were  skilled  in  everv 
science,  particularly  in  astronomy,  geometry,  geography,  rheto- 
ric, medicine,  anatomy,  surgery,  botany  and  the  mechanic  arts. 
We  readily  admit,  that  the  knowledge  of  this  singular  order  ol 
men,  in  the  above  branches  of  learning,  were  greatly  superior  to 
that  of  the  people  by  whom  they  were  surrounded,  but  we  think 
the  extraordinary  knowledge  attributed  to  them,  is  far  beyond 
that  state  of  society  in  which  they  lived,  and  cannot  be  fairly 
inferred  from' the  existing  accounts  of  those  who  were  contem- 
porary with  them,  and  who  were  most  familiarly  acquainted 
with  the  state  of  learning  amongst  them.  These  accounts  arc 
neither  numerous  nor  explicit,  and  are  confined  to  the  details  oi 
a  few  Roman  writers.  The  Druids  themselves,  although  the 
7jse  of  letters  was  probably  not  unknown  to  them,  never  commit- 
ted to  writing  the  peculiar  tenets  of  their  philosophy,  or  the 
fruits  of  their  learning;  hence,  we  can  form  but  a  very  imperfect 
opinion  of  the  true  state  of  science  among  them,  and  we  may 
>afely  conclude  that  they  possessed  no  more  philosophy  or  learn- 
ing, than  the  priests  of  other  religions  in  the  same  state  of  society, 
ind  that  what  they  did  possess,  they  employed  rather  for  the 
purpose  of  encouraging  a  slavish  superstition,  and  maintaining 
their  assumed  authority  over  the  people,  than  for  any  purpose  of 
general  good.  Certain  it  is,  that  whatever  benefits  their  learn- 
ing was  capable  of  conferring,  was  never  felt  beyond  the  limits 
of  their  own  order.  To  support  a  favorite  theory,  men  of  lively 
fancy  too  often  wander  into  the  field  of  conjecture,  and  give  to 
the  public  the  suggestions  of  a  heated  imagination,  as  the  result 
of  sober  inquiry  and  laborious  investigation,  and  hence  it  is,  that 
we  are  so  often  misled  and  induced  to  adopt  erroneous  opinions 
'of  men  and  things.  The  Romans  were  much  opposed  to  Dpuid- 
ism.  Augustus  issued  a  decree  for  its  suppression,  which  wa> 
revived  by  Tiberius  and  Claudius,  in  whose  reigns  it  was  nearly 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  219 

suppressed  in  Gaul,  and  a  few  years  thereafter  almost  every 
vestige  of  this  ancient  superstition  was  entirely  obliterated.* 

We  have,  heretofore,  taken  no  notice  of  the  pagan  schools  of 
Gaul,  from  which  issued  some  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of 
the  Roman  empire.  We  will,  therefore,  advert  to  that  subject, 
before  we  introduce  to  our  readers  the  few  distinguished  writers 
between  the  reigns  of  Clovis  and  Charlemagne. 

About  five  hundred  and  eighty-nine  years  before  Christ,  a 
colony  of  Phocians,  attracted  by  the  mildness  of  the  climate  and 
its  advantageous  situation  for  commerce,  established  themselves 
at  Masilia,  now  Marseilles.  They  brought  with  them  consider- 
able knowledge  of  Grecian  literature,  which  they  cultivated  with 
so  much  care,  that  the  Romans,  when  they  first  discovered  them, 
were  charmed  with  their  advancement  in  arts  and  science.  As 
soon  as  they  had  established  themselves  in  their  new  situation, 
they  instituted  schools  for  teaching  eloquence,  philosophy, medi- 
cine, mathematics,  and  other  branches  of  learning,  but  the  ad- 
vantages to  be  derived  from  their  schools,  do  not  appear  to  have 
spread  beyond  the  limits  of  the  colony,  until  after  the  conquest 
of  Gaul  by  the  Romans.  The  Romans  were  so  highly  pleased 
with  the  gentle  manners  and  regular  conduct,  and  the  genius  and 
.skill  manifested  by  this  distant  colony  of  Greeks,  that  they  con- 
ferred upon  them  all  the  privileges  of  Roman  citizens,  and  in  re- 
turn found  the  colonists  faithful  allies;  but  in  the  civil  war  be- 
tween Caesar  and  Pompey,  having  embraced  the  fortunes  of  the 
latter,  the  victorious  Caesar  reduced  their  privileges. 

From  the  schools  of  Marseilles  issued  many  learned  men,  who 
were  distinguished  even  in  the  reigns  of  the  degenerate  success- 
ors of  Augustus;  some  of  these  we  have  already  noticed.  Their 
example  and  influence  contributed  to  excite  a  spirit  of  learning 
and  literary  emulation  in  other  cities  of  Gaul.  Schools  were 
consequently  established  at  Narbonne,  Aries,  Vienne,  Thoulouse 
and  Autun,  which  attained  a  celebrity  almost  equal  to  that  of 
Marseilles,  and  which  also  furnished  men  who  acquired  great 
reputation  in  their  respective  professions,  even  in  the  capital  of 
the  Roman  empire  itself. 

With  respect  to  the  manner  in  which  learning  was  communi- 
cated in  the  schools  above-mentioned,  it  appears  that  the  student 

*  Henry's  Hist,  of  G,  Brit.;  Rankin's  Hist,  of  France;  Eden.  Ency.  art  Druid;  Caes 
€om. 


\ 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 


began  with  the  study  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  grammar,  in  order 
that  he  might  speak  and  write  the  language  fluently.  Having 
made  himself  acquainted  with  these,  he  pursued  other  elemen- 
tary studies,  a  knowledge  of  which  were  necessary  to  form  the 
scholar,  but  his  attention  was  principally  directed  to  such 
branches  of  learning  as  were  considered  essential  to  make  an 
accomplished  public  speaker.  The  ancient  philosophy  of  the 
Greeks  was  studied  with  care,  as  containing  a  vast  fund  of  use- 
ful information  on  almost  every  topic;  the  prevailing  systems 
were  those  taught  by  Zeno  and  his  disciples  and  the  philoso- 
phers of  the  middle  academy  —  Aristotle  and  Epicurus  had  but 
few  followers. 

The  schools  of  Gaul  attained  so  great  a  reputation,  that  they 
were  considered  as  the  high  roads  to  honor  and  power;  they 
multiplied  exceedingly,  but,  at  length,  shared  the  fate  of  all 
human  institutions  —  from  an  exalted  station  from  which  they 
promulgated  literature  and  science  over  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  Roman  empire,  they  sunk  into  comparative  insignificance  — 
from  being  the  seats  of  learning,  they  became  the  abodes  of  ig- 
norance and  superstition.  For  this  decline  of  learning,  various 
causes  have  been  assigned;  the  principal,  however,  may  be 
traced  to  the  civil  wars  that  so  frequently  raged  on  the  succes- 
sion of  the  emperors,  and  the  irruptions  of  the  tribes  of  barba- 
rians who  finally  subverted  the  empire,  and  overturned  the 
splendid  fabric  of  Roman  greatness.  The  progress  of  literature 
was  thus  so  often  interrupted,  that  the  attention  of  men  was  di- 
rected to  other  objects  of  more  immediate  concern;  their  own 
personal  safety  and  the  preservation  of  their  property,  left  but- 
little  time  or  inclination  for  study,  hence  the  schools  gradually 
fell  into  decay. 

The  introduction  of  Christianity,  as  might  reasonably  have 
been  expected,  seeing  its  influence  at  the  present  day,  in  no  way 
contributed  to  prevent  the  downfal  of  the  schools,  or  to  the  pre- 
servation of  learning.  This  heavenly  system  was  already  cor- 
rupted by  the  devices  of  men,  who  sought  their  own  aggran- 
disement by  keeping  the  people  in  ignorance,  and  who,  on  em- 
bracing Christianity,  mingled  with  the  pure  precepts  of  the  gos- 
pel, the  dogmas  of  the  schools  to  which  they  had  been  previous- 
ly attached.  Ignorant  themselves,  the  Christian  teachers  were 
incapable  of  restoring  learning  to  its  former  glory,  and  until  the 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^21 

reign  of  Charlemagne,  there  are  but  few  writers  worthy  of  no- 
tice. 

Sidonius  was  a  learned  man  of  this  period.  His  father  was  a 
tribune  and  a  secretary  of  state  under  the  emperor  Honoring, 
and  afterwards  prefect  of  Gaul.  Under  the  best  masters  of  his 
time,  he  went  through  a  regular  course  of  study,  and  became 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  learning  of  the  times.  He  early 
discovered  a  genius  for  poetry,  which  he  cultivated  to  a  consi- 
derable extent,  having  written  several  poems,  which  were  much 
esteemed  in  his  day,  and  possess  no  small  share  of  merit.  Sido- 
nius married  the  daughter  of  the  prefect  Avitus,  by  whom  he 
acquired  an  estate  that  rendered  him  independent,  and  enabled 
him  to  pursue  his  favorite  studies.  On  the  accession  of  his 
father-in-law  to  the  imperial  throne,  he  accompanied  him  to 
Rome,  where  he  pronounced  a  glowing  panegyric  upon  him  in 
the  presence  of  the  senate.  The  reign  of  Avitus  lasted  but  a 
few  months,  and  Sidonius  soon  secured  to  himself  the  favor  of 
Majorianus  and  Athenius,  his  successors;  by  the  latter  he  was 
appointed  prefect  of  Rome  and  created  a  patrician,  and  was  also 
admitted  among  his  counsellors.  Whilst  thus  enjoying  the  favor 
of  the  emperor,  he  was  suddenly  seized  with  a  religious  spirit, 
and  having  relinquished  his  civil  offices,  he  became  bishop  of 
Clermont.  He  soon  after  abandoned  poetry  as  profane  and  un- 
becoming the  Christian  character;  he  withdrew  from  the  world, 
became  a  recluse  in  his  mode  of  life,  and  his  mind  was  solely 
occupied  in  the  contemplation  of  the  mysteries  of  religion. 

As  a  writer  Sidonius  occupied  a  high  rank  among  his  contem- 
poraries; "his  descriptions  are  animated  and  his  writings  are 
not  destitute  of  sensibility  or  judgment.  His  prose  and  verse 
flow  smoothly,  though  there  is  a  considerable  want  of  purity  in 
his  language,  and  of  harmony  in  his  periods ;  there  is  a  quaint- 
ness  of  expression,  and  a  general  defect  of  simplicity  in  his 
style.  Some  parts  of  his  works  will  admit  of  comparison  with 
any  of  the  authors  of  the  Augustan  age."  He  published  nine 
books  of  letters,  and  began  the  history  of  the  wars  of  Attila. 
He  died  in  the  fifty-eighth  year  of  his  age. 

Fortunatus  was  born  at  Poictiers  A.  D.  530.  He  was  educa- 
ted at  Ravenna,  where  he  pursued  with  success  the  prescribed 
studies,  which  were  limited  in  their  character.  Near  the  close 
of  his  life  he  was  made  bishop  of  Poictiers.  His  genius  and 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

learning  are  highly  extolled  by  his  contemporaries.  As  a  wri- 
ter he  seems  to  have  devoted  most  of  his  attention  to  poetry,  to 
which  he  was  much  attached.  The  principal  feature  that  dis- 
tinguished his  poetical  compositions,  is  an  easy  and  flowing 
style,  which  few  writers  of  that  period  were  able  to  reach. 
His  chief  poetical  work  is  a  poem  on  the  life  of  Saint  Martin, 
filled  with  all  the  absurdities  that  a  superstitious  age  could  in- 
vent, and  a  credulous  mind  adopt.  He  wrote  many  smaller 
poems,  chiefly  on  religious  subjects,  and  addressed  to  different 
bishops  and  other  clerical  men  of  his  time.  Among  his  prose 
writings  the  most  celebrated  is  his  "Exposition  of  the  Lord's 
prayer,"  which  is  said  to  be  not  only  "pious  and  rich  in  theology, 
but  surpassing  all  his  other  prose  writings,  in  purity,  perspicuity 
and  precision.  It  is  free  from  that  overflowing  stream  of  words* 
which  being  poured  forth  tumultuously  and  without  arrange- 
ment, obscure  and  embarrass  the  sense."  From  his  genius  and 
talents  Fortunatus  was  worthy  to  have  flourished  in  a  more  re- 
fined and  literary  age. 

About  this  time  also  flourished  Boethius.  He  was  born  at 
Rome,  and  at  an  early  age  was  sent  to  Athens  to  learn  the 
Greek  language,  and  study  philosophy.  He  there  prosecuted 
his  studies  under  the  direction  of  Proclus,  a  distinguished  pro- 
fessor of  the  eclectic  school.  On  his  return  to  Rome  he  continu- 
ed to  pursue  his  studies  with  unabated  ardor,  and  soon  gave 
proofs  of  his  extensive  learning  in  the  various  works  which  he 
published  on  different  sciences  and  in  defence  of  the  orthodox 
faith  against  the  host  of  heretics  that  beset  it.  Devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  the  sciences,  he  was  anxious  to  impress  his 
countrymen  with  a  similar  devotion;  for  that  purpose  he  trans- 
lated, and  illustrated  by  commentaries,  the  geometry  of  Euclid, 
the  music  by  Pythagoras,  the  arithmetic  of  Nicomachus,  the 
mechanics  of  Archimedes,  the  astronomy  of  Ptolemy,  the  theo- 
logy of  Plato  and  the  logic  of  Aristotle. 

Boethius,  who  possessed  the  generous  and  independent  spirit 
of  an  ancient  Roman,  by  the  freedom  of  his  speech  offended 
Theodoric,who  threw  him  into  prison,  where  he  was  afterwards 
put  to  death.  During  his  confinement  he  composed  his  celebra- 
ted work  entitled  the  "Consolation  of  Philosophy."  This  work, 
which  contains  a  vast  treasure  of  sublime  moral  sentiments,  is 
written  partly  in  prose  and  partly  in  verse,  and  is  thrown  into  the 


1     HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  223 

form  of  a  conference  between  the  author  and  philosophy,  who 
endeavors  to  soothe  his  afflictions,  and  prepare  him  for  the  last 
great  trial.  He  begins  by  complaining  of  the  miserable  state 
to  which  he  is  reduced,  when  his  divine  instructer,  to  assuage  his 
distress,  reminds  him  of  the  instability  of  fortune,  and  of  the 
large  portion  of  happiness  which  he  had  so  long  enjoyed.  She 
also  reminds  him,  that  although  the  wicked  may  enjoy  apparent 
felicity,  and  the  virtuous  may  be  sometimes  afflicted,  the  Deity 
will  equitably  judge,  and  reward  and  punish  them  according  to 
their  deeds.  This  work  has  been  frequently  translated. 

Another  distinguished  writer  of  this  period  was  Gregory  of 
Tours.  He  was  descended  from  an  illustrious  family  of  Auvergne, 
and  was  principally  educated  under  the  inspection  of  an 
uncle,  distinguished  for  his  piety  and  virtue.  Early  in  life  he 
determined  to  devote  himself  to  the  church,  and  in  order  to  pre- 
pare himself  for  the  responsible  duties  of  his  station,  he  employ- 
ed much  of  his  time  in  suitable  studies.  Being  raised  to  the 
dignity  of  bishop  of  Tours,  he  preserved  a  firm  and  indepen- 
dent course  of  conduct  which  gained  him  the  esteem  of  all,  and 
was  frequently  consulted  by  his  sovereign  on  matters  of  state. 
He  died  in  the  fifty-second  year  of  his  age  A.  D.  595. 

The  principal  work  of  Gregory  which  has  reached  us,  is  his 
history  of  France,  in  ten  books.  The  first  and  second  book  is 
a  mere  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  world  from  the  creation  t<5 
the  death  of  Clovis,  A.  D.  511.  The  other  eight  books  contain 
a  more  copious  narrative  of  the  history  of  France,  from  the  death 
of  Clovis  to  the  year  A.  D.  591.  Gregory  also  wrote  eight 
books  of  the  "Lives  of  the  Saints,"  beginning  with  the  miracles 
of  Christ  and  his  apostles;  also  a  "Commentary  on  the  Psalms" 
and  a  "Treatise  on  Ecclesiastical  Offices."  The  style  of  Gre- 
gory cannot  be  admired;  nor  can  we  place  sufficient  reliance 
upon  him  as  an  historian,  on  account  of  his  credulity  and  that 
superstition  which  belonged  to  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 

With  a  notice  of  the  French  historian  Frcdegarius,  and  the  ve- 
nerable Bede,  we  shall  close  our  account  of  distinguished  writers 
between  the  time  of  Clovis  and  Charlemagne.  Fredegarius  flou- 
rished about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century — the  place  of 
his  birth  and  his  early  education  are  alike  unknown.  As  a 
French  historian  he  ranks  next  to  Gregory  of  Tours.  His  his- 
tory, like  that  of  Gregory,  begin?  with  the  rrration.  and  is 


224  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

brought  down  to  the  year  A.  D.  640.  From  his  own  accounit 
he  took  great  care  in  investigating  the  subjects  which  he  records, 
and  its  accuracy  may  be  generally  depended  upon.  His  work 
has  been  continued  by  other  hands  to  the  year  A.  D.  768. 

Beda,  or  the  venerable  Bede,  was  born  at  Weremouth,  in  North- 
umberland, in  the  year  672,  and  acquired  the  elements  of  learn- 
ing in  the  monastery  of  St.  Peter.  Possessing  a  heart  devoted 
to  learning  and  an  uncommon  degree  of  application,  he  made 
himself  familiar  with  every  branch  of  literature  which  could  be 
acquired  at  that  time.  He  became  so  celebrated,  that  his  fame 
reached  the  ears  of  Sergius,  the  sovereign  pontiff,  who  invited 
him  to  Rome  to  consult  him  on  subjects  of  great  importance  to 
the  church — the  temporal  aggrandisement  of  which,  then  formed 
one  of  the  prominent  objects  of  the  papal  court.  Bede,  how- 
ever, preferred  the  retirement  of  the  cloister,  and  the  peaceful 
pursuit  of  knowledge,  to  the  bustle  of  a  court.  He  continued  hi? 
studios,  therefore,  with  renewed  application, and  drawing  largely 
from  all  the  stores  of  ancient  learning  within  his  reach,  he  made 
himself  master  of  every  branch  of  literature  that  it  was  possible 
for  any  man  to  acquire  in  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  He  com- 
posed and  published  many  works,  the  most  valuable  of  which  is 
his  "Ecclesiastical  History,"  which  is  still  relied  upon  by  mo- 
dern historians  as  a  work  of  high  authority.  He  was  held  in 
high  estimation  for  his  moral  and  icligioQs,  as  well  as  literary 
character,  and  his  homilies  were  appointed  to  be  read  publicly 
in  the  churches.  He  was  the  first  who  translated  parts  of  the 
Bible  into  the  language  of  the  country,  which  was  then  Saxon. 
All  his  other  works  were  composed  in  the  Latin  language,  in  an 
easy  and  perspicuous  style,  but  often  deficient  in  purity.  He 
died  A.  D.  735,  and  was  buried  in  the  monastery  at  Tarrow: 
his  body,  however,  was  not  sutfered  to  remain  there,  but  was  re- 
moved to  Durham,  and  placed  in  the  same  coffin  with  that  of 
the  renowned  St.  Cuthbert. 

After  the  death  of  Beda,  learning  having  lost  its  principal 
support,  rapidly  declined  in  England.  William  of  Malmsbury, 
one  of  the  earliest  and  best  of  the  English  monkish  historians, 
says,  that  "the  death  of  Beda  was  fatal  to  learning,  and  particu- 
larly to  history,  in  England;  insomuch,  that  it  may  be  said,  that 
almost  all  knowledge  of  past  events  was  buried  in  the  same 
grave  with  him,  and  hath  continued  in  that  condition  even  t* 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  225 

our  times.  There  was  not  so  much  as  one  Englishman  left  be- 
hind him,  who  emulated  the  glory  which  he  had  acquired  by  his 
studies,  imitated  his  example,  or  pursued  the  path  of  know- 
ledge he  had  pointed  out.  A  few  indeed  of  his  survivors  were 
good  men,  and  not  unlearned;  but  they  generally  spent  their 
lives  in  an  inglorious  silence ;  while  the  far  greatest  number 
sunk  into  sloth  and  ignorance,  until  by  degress  the  love  of  learn? 
ing  was  quite  extinguished  in  this  island  for  a  long  time."* 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

Sketch  of  the  history  of  the  literature  of  the  Arabians,  from  the  time 
of  Mahomet  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain,  with  a 
sketch  of  Spanish  literature  after  that  period. 

BEFORE  we  proceed  any  farther  with  our  sketch  of  the  li- 
terature of  the  European  nations,  we  will  attempt  a  review  of 
the  state  of  literature  among  the  Arabians.  We  have  adopted 
this  plan  because,  when  the  Christian  world  was  sunk  in  igno- 
rance, literature  among  the  Arabians  was  in  a  high  state  of  cul- 
tivation, and  because  the  success  of  learning  among  the  Arabs  of 
Spain,  contributed  to  its  revival  in  the  other  kingdoms  of  Europe. 
The  Arabians  are  supposed  to  be  the  descendants  of  Ishmael, 
and  occupied  that  portion  of  Asia,  known  by  the  several  names 
of  Arabia  the  Stony,  the  Sandy  and  the  Happy,  appellations  in- 
tended to  express  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  climate.  The  for- 
mer lies  adjoining  Egypt,  and  is  of  a  rocky  and  unfruitful  soil; 
the  second  extends  along  the  foot  of  the  mountains  of  Chaldea, 
and  is  washed  on  the  north  by  the  Euphrates ;  it  presents  to  the 
eye  nothing  but  barren  deserts,  relieved  by  fertile  spots  like 
islands  in  the  sea,  upon  which  the  wandering  Arabs  pitch  their 
tents  and  remain  until  the  pasturage  is  exhausted;  the  latter,  or 
Arabia  the  Happy,  is  surrounded  by  the  Red  sea,  the  Indian 

*  Rank.  Hist,  of  France;  Edin.  Ency.;  Gib.  Rom.  Emp.;  Millet's  Gen.  Hist.;  BnA 
Hist,  of  Phil.;  Mosh.  Eccl.  Hist. 

29 


^26  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Ocean,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  Sandy  and  Stony  Arahia.  From 
the  fertility  of  its  soil,  mild  climate  and  pure  air,  it  acquired  the 
name  by  which  it  is  distinguished. 

The  Arabians  were  divided  into  two  classes;  those  who  dwelt 
in  towns  and  cities,  and  carried  on  the  operations  of  trade  and 
commerce;  and  those  who  lived  in  tents,  and  led  a  wandering 
and  unsettled  life,  like  the  aborigines  of  our  country — a  kind  of 
life  still  pursued  by  the  Bedowin  Arabs.  Their  religion  was 
originally  that  known  by  the  name  of  Sabianism  or  Zabianism,  or 
the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  which  they  probably  derived 
from  the  Chaldeans.  With  regard  to  this  system  of  religion, 
we  have  already  had  occasion  to  speak;  it  is,  therefore,  unne- 
cessary to  repeat  what  has  already  been  said.  This  system  of  star- 
worship  was  afterwards  changed  by  the  inventions  of  the  priest- 
hood, until  their  religious  system  settled  into  one  much  less  ra- 
tional, and  in  the  Caaba  or  sacred  temple  of  Mecca,  they  had  no 
less  than  three  hundred  and  sixty  idols.  This  sacred  temple, 
until  the  time  of  Mahomet,  was  visited  with  superstitious  vene- 
ration every  year,  by  crowds  of  devout  and  enthusiastic  pilgrimsr 
who  resorted  thither  to  present  their  offerings,  kiss  the  sacrejrt 
stone,  and  walk  seven  times  round  the  sacred  edifice  that  con- 
tained the  objects  of  their  idolatrous  devotion. 

The  learning  of  the  Arabs  before,  and  some  time  after,  the 
rime  of  Mahomet,  consisted  only  of  a  slight  knowledge  of  astro- 
nomy, such  as  could  be  obtained  by  observing  the  appearance 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  without  the  aid  of  instruments,  and  that 
species  of  poetry  which  was  common  to  almost  all  rude  nations. 
When  the  Alcoran  was  published,  they  were  so  utterly  ignorant, 
that  even  in  the  district  of  Yemen,  one  of  the  most  populous  and 
flourishing  of  Arabia,  not  a  single  person  could  be  found  who 
could  read  or  write  Arabic^  and  the  Jews  and  Christians  of  the 
country  were  distinguished  by  the  title  of  "the  people  of  the 
book." 

Such  was  the  superstition  and  ignorance  that  prevailed  in 
Arabia,  that  Mahomet,  the  Arabian  prophet  and  legislator,  de- 
termined not  only  to  found  a  new  empire,  but  overturn  the  pre- 
vailing system  of  idolatry,  and  establish  in  its  stead,  a  system, 
liaving  for  its  basis  the  fundamental  doctrine,,  that  "there  is  but 
one  only  God."  Mahomet  was  one  of  those  extraordinary  mefc 
ivho  are  only  permitted  to  appear  on  earth  at  intervals,  to  an 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  22* 

some  great  design  of  the  all-wise  Creator.  Illiterate  and 
uneducated,  but  valiant  and  persevering,  and  possessing  in 
no  inconsiderable  degree,  that  kind  of  eloquence  which  is 
calculated  to  strike  a  rude  and  illiterate  people,  he  succeeded 
in  establishing  an  empire  which  continued  under  fifty-six  suc- 
cessive caliphs,  and  a  religion  which  has  spread  over  almost  all 
the  eastern  world.  Mahomet  was  not,  as  many  have  asserted, 
of  low  and  obscure  parentage,  but  being  a  Korashite,  he  be- 
longed to  the  noblest  tribe  of  all  Arabia,  arid  he  thus  enjoyed 
advantages,  that  to  an  adventurer  of  humbler  origin,  would  have 
been  denied.  He  declared  he  was  commissioned  by  God  to  de- 
stroy polytheism  and  idolatry;  for  this  purpose  he  delivered  a 
new  law,  known  by  the  name  of  the  koran,  or  alcoran,  the  ori- 
ginal of  which  he  taught  them,  was  laid  up  in  the  archives  oi 
heaven,  and  that  the  angel  Gabriel  brought  him  the  copy  of  it, 
chapter  by  chapter,  as  circumstances  rendered  it  necessary  they 
should  be  published  to  the  people.  The  success  of  Mahomet 
and  his  successors  in  the  propogation  of  the  new  religion,  was 
rapid  beyond  example,  but  was  in  a  great  measure  occasioned 
by  the  terror  of  their  arms.  Besides,  his  religion  was  artfully 
adapted  to  the  corrupt  nature  of  man,  and  the  particular  man- 
ners and  opinions  of  the  eastern  nations,  where  its  success  was 
most  rapid;  and  the  bitter  dissentions  and  cruel  animosities, 
which  at  that  time  existed  among  the  different  Christian  sects, 
rendering  the  very  name  of  Christian  odious  and  contemptible, 
assisted  the  propogation  of  Mahometanism,  among  many  of  the 
nations  which  were  then  united  with  the  eastern  empire. 

Mahomet,  as  we  have  observed,  was  illiterate  himself,  and  he 
seems  to  have  thought  it  necessary  to  keep  his  followers  ignorant 
of  every  thing,  except  what  was  contained  in  the  koran;  for  we 
find  that  soon  after  his  power  was  established,  he  issued  an  edict, 
whereby  the  study  of  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences  was  declared 
a  capital  offence,  at  the  same  time  proclaiming,  that  the  koran 
contained  every  thing  that  was  necessary  to  be  known.  Agree- 
ably to  this  principle,  Omar,  the  third  caliph  in  succession  from 
Mahomet,  ordered  his  general  Amrou,  to  destroy  the  books  in 
the  libraries  of  Alexandria,  that  had  been  accumulating  for  ages* 
and  contained  inestimable  treasures  of  ancient  learning.  This 
'jvent  took  place  in  the  year  A.  D.  64  U  and  if  true,  is  a  strong 


228  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


proof  the  contempt  of  the  Arabians  for  learning,  at  that  period 
of  their  history.* 

Ali  and  Moawihah,  the  fourth  and  fifth  caliphs  after  Mahomet, 
extended  some  protection  towards  learning  and  learned  men, 
notwithstanding  the  edict  of  Mahomet  above-mentioned,  but  it 
was  not  until  the  accession  of  Abbas,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Abbasides,  in  the  749th  year  of  the  Christian  era,  that 
the  light  of  learning  began  to  spread  abroad  over  the  Arabian 
empire.  Abbas  himself,  in  consequence  of  being  involved  in 
wars  for  the  establishment  of  his  throne,  did  not  do  much  more 
than  open  the  way  for  the  promotion  of  literature,  by  rejecting 
the  absurd  notion,  that  every  thing  necessary  to  be  known  was 
contained  in  the  koran,  and  giving  his  countenance  and  protec- 
tion to  men  of  letters.  Abbas  died  in  the  30th  year  of  his  age, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Al-Manzor,  a  renowned  patron 
of  learning,  and  from  whose  reign  the  Arabian  writers  date  the 
origin  of  their  literature. 

Al-Manzor,  as  a  sovereign,  is  represented  as  cruel  and  impla- 
cable, but  as  a  private  individual,  mild  and  affable;  he  greatly 
contributed  to  soften  and  subdue  the  ferocious  character  of  his 
subjects,  and,  in  order  to  instil  into  them  a  taste  for  refined  and 
elegant  pleasures  and  amusements,  his  attention  was  directed  to 
the  encouragement  of  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences.  Al-Manzor 
removed  the  seat  of  empire  from  Dnmascus  to  Bagdad,  which, 
by  him  and  his  immediate  successors,  was  quickly  embellished 
with  splendid  palaces,  and  in  a  short  time  it  became  the  seat  of 
commerce,  as  well  as  of  literature,  science  and  art.  Bagdad, 
when  it  became  the  capital  of  the  caliphate,  was  the  residence 
of  many  Christians,  who  were  celebrated  for  their  knowledge  of 
medicine  and  other  sciences,  some  of  whom  Al-Marizor  caused 
to  be  introduced  into  his  court,  where  they  soon  confirmed  his 
taste  for  literature  and  philosophy,  and  under  them,  he  himself 
studied  astronomy.  He  offered  liberal  rewards  to  those  who 
would  translate  the  works  of  the  Grecian  philosophers,  in  the 
various  branches  of  learning,  many  of  which  were  introduced 
into  the  empire  by  the  Nestorians  and  Jews,  who  had  been  com- 
pelled to  fly  from  the  persecution  of  the  orthodox  Christians  of 
the  empire  of  the  east.  By  this  means,  the  Arabians  became 

*  Prideaux's  Life  of  Mah. ;  Gibbon's  Rom.  Bmp. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^ 

possessed  of  many  of  the  works  of  the  ancient  philosophers, 
which  being  translated  into  Syriac,  the  vernacular  tongue  of  the 
people  of  Bagdad,  a  knowledge  of  the  philosophy  of  Plato  and 
Aristotle  was  so  generally  diffused,  that  a  taste  for  literature 
and  a  desire  of  learning  was  introduced,  which  rapidly  spread 
under  Al-Raschid  and  Al-Mamon.  It  is  said,  that  most  of  the 
translations  thus  made  by  order  of  Al-Manzor,  which  are  still  ex- 
tant, are  very  defective,  in  consequence,  no  doubt,  of  their 
having  been  translated  from  the  original  into  Syriac,  and  after- 
wards into  Arabic. 

The  seeds  of  science  thus  planted  by  Al-Manzor,  grew  and 
flourished  under  the  protection  of  his  more  renowned  successor 
Harun  Al-Raschid,  who  ascended  the  throne  A.  D.  786.  Al- 
Raschid  himself  was  an  enlightened  scholar,  and  applied  him- 
self, during  his  leisure  from  the  cares  of  government,  with  great 
assiduity  to  the  pursuits  of  literature,  under  the  direction  of 
learned  men,  who  were  attracted  to  his  court  bv  his  munificence. 
It  is  said,  that  he  never  undertook  a  journey  without  having 
with  him  at  least  one  hundred  men  of  science,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  preserve  whatever  they  might  discover  valuable  in  science. 
He  collected  a  considerable  number  of  valuable  manuscripts,  in 
the  Greek,  Persian,  Chaldean  and  Egyptian  languages,  which 
he  caused  to  be  translated  into  Arabic;  but  it  is  much  to  be  re- 
gretted, that  on  account  of  his  partiality  for  his  native  language, 
after  the  translations  were  completed,  he  ordered  the  originals 
to  be  destroyed.  He  instituted  a  number  of  schools,  in  which 
philosophy  and  other  branches  of  useful  and  ornamental  learn- 
ing were  taught,  and  so  much  did  he  differ  in  his  ideas  with  re- 
gard to  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  from  most  of  his  predeces- 
sors, and  from  the  founder  of  his  religion,  that  he  caused  schools 
to  be  attached  to  every  mosque  he  erected,  so  that  "whenever 
the  faithful  assembled  to  adore  the  Deity,  they  found  in  his  tem- 
ple an  opportunity  of  rendering  him  the  noblest  homage  his  crea- 
tures can  pay,  by  the  cultivation  of  those  faculties  with  which 
their  creator  has  endowed  them."  Al-Raschid  died  A.  D.  809, 
His  immediate  successor  was  his  eldest  son  Al-Amin,  a  prince 
remarkable  for  his  vices  and  incapacity,  which  soon  hurled  him 
from  the  throne  to  make  room  for  his  brother  Al-Mamon. 

As  soon  as  he  had  secured  himself  in  power,  Al-Mamon,  after 
the  example  of  his  father,  turned  his  attention  to  the  cultivation 


230 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATI/HE, 


of  learning  and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  his  subjects, 
which  had  met  with  some  interruption  during  the  short,  but 
turbulent  reign  of  Al-Amin.  He  established  an  academy  at 
Bagdad,  and  invited  thither  the  most  eminent  philosophers, 
without  regard  to  their  religious  creeds,  observing  when  spoken 
to  on  the  danger  of  subverting  the  established  religion,  that  he 
employed  them  as  teachers  of  learning  and  science,  not  of  reli- 
gion. He  collected  from  his  subject  provinces  the  most  valua- 
ble books  that  could  be  discovered,  and  the  governors  of  pro- 
vinces were  directed  to  collect  the  literary  remains  of  the  con- 
quered countries,  in  order  that  they  might  be  preserved  for 
future  generations,  When  he  dictated  the  terms  of  peace  to 
the  Greek  emperor,  Michael  the  stammerer,  the  tribute  he  de- 
manded, was  a  collection  of  Greek  authors.  Surely  a  man  who 
could  make,  at  such  a  time,  a  demand  of  a  tribute  so  singular 
and  so  unusual,  must  have  been  devoted  to  literature,  and  de- 
mands from  the  lover  of  science  even  more  than  a  mere  passing 
tribute  of  praise.  Al-Mamon  was  himself  celebrated  as  an  as- 
tronomer, and  was  much  devoted  to  the  study  of  that  sublime 
science,  which  expands  the  mind  by  the  grand  and  elevated  ideas 
it  unfolds  of  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  great  Creator.  To 
extend  the  knowledge  of  astronomical  science,  he  caused  to  be 
translated  the  Almagest  of  Ptolemy,  a  celebrated  geographer  and 
istronomer,  who  flourished  during  the  reigns  of  Adrian  and  the 
Antonines;  this  work  contained  a  body  of  astronomical  science, 
embracing  a  catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  a  collection  of  as- 
tronomical problems.  Like  his  father,  he  also  caused  transla- 
tions to  be  made  at  a  great  expense,  of  the  most  valuable  works 
from  the  Greek,  Persian  and  other  languages  into  the  Arabic, 
and  by  thus  inspiring  his  subjects  with  a  love  of  learning,  he 
softened  and  refined  their  manners,  and  induced  a  spirit  of  in- 
quiry, which  afterwards  spread  and  illuminated  the  benighted 
region  of  Christian  Europe.  When  we  look  at  the  present  con- 
dition of  Arabia,  and  the  almost  universal  ignorance  that  pre- 
vails in  the  Mahometan  world, we  would  find  it  difficult  to  believe, 
that  the  Arabians  were,  at  any  time,  as  enlightened  as  we  have 
represented  them,  were  it  not  well  authenticated  by  impartial 
history;  and  that  when  the  fairest  portions  of  Europe  were  en- 
veloped in  darkness,  bigotry  and  superstition,  the  empire  of  Arn 
Hia  wac  the  seat  of  science,  literature  and  art. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  231 

Al-Mamon  was  succeeded  by  Al-Motassem,  whose  short  reign 
of  eight  years  was  more  distinguished  by  the  pomp  and  magnifi- 
cense  he  displayed,  than  any  great  encouragement  he  extended 
to  learning  and  learned  men.  In  841  he  was  succeeded  by  Al- 
Wathek,  who  liberally  encouraged  learned  men,  particularly 
those  who  were  skilled  in  mathematics  and  astronomy,  his  favor- 
ite sciences.  From  this  period  until  near  the  close  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  when  the  empire  of  the  Arabs,  under  Al-Motas- 
sem II.  the  last  of  the  Abbassides,  yielded  to  the  power  of  the 
Turks,  learning  flourished.  The  Arabians  could  enumerate 
among  their  literary  institutions,  schools  of  great  celebrity,  to 
which  Christians,  as  well  as  the  followers  of  Mahomet  resorted ; 
the  principal  of  which  were  at  Bagdad,  Bassora  and  Bochara; 
at  Alexandria  and  Cairo  in  Egypt;  at  Morocco  and  Fez,  in  what 
is  now  the  kingdom  of  Morocco;  and  at  Cordova  and  Grenada, 
in  Spain.  The  college  of  Bagdad,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
twelfth  century,  was  in  so  flourishing  a  condition,  that  it  contain- 
ed six  thousand  students,  and  that  of  Bassora  contained  nearly  as 
many.  These  colleges  and  several  others  were  large  and  mag- 
nificent structures,  adorned  with  the  most  splendid  specimens  of 
art,  and  furnished  with  valuable  libraries,  abounding  in  works  in 
every  department  of  literature. 

Such  was  the  anxiety  for  distinction  and  the  spirit  of  emula- 
tion that  actuated  the  respective  schools,  that  every  depaitment 
of  learning  was  carefully  and  assiduously  cultivated,  nor  was  the 
improvement  of  their  language  forgotten;  to  this  object  the  ef- 
forts of  the  two  rival  schools  of  Cufa  and  Bassora,  were  directed., 
and  with  great  success.  "The  Arabian  language,"  says  a  cele- 
brated orientalist,*  "is  expressive,  strong,  sonorous,  and  the  most 
copious,  perhaps,  in  the  world ;  for,  as  almost  every  tribe  had 
many  words  appropriated  to  itself,  the  poets,  for  the  convenience 
of  their  measure,  or  sometimes  for  their  singular  beauty,  made 
use  of  them  all,  and,  as  the  poems  became  popular,  these  words 
were  by  degreess  incorporated  with  the  whole  language,  like  a 
number  of  little  streams,  which  meet  together  in  one  channel, 
and,  forming  a  most  plentiful  river,  flow  rapidly  into  the  sea." 

Although  the  literary  efforts  of  the  Arabians  were  directed  to 
various  useful  and  important  sciences,  they  seem  to  have  had  a 
peculiar  fondness  for  poetry,  and  to  have  treated  their  poet* 

**  Sir  William  Jonf=      ^eo  his  essay  onthe  poetry  of  Eastern  nations.- 


0^2  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

with  great  respect.  The  number  of  Arabian  poets,  if  we  may 
believe  those  who  are  skilled  in  oriental  literature,  is  greater 
than  that  of  all  other  nations  united.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
seventh  century,  the  Arabic  language  was  brought  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection  by  a  sort  of  poetical  academy,  that  used  to 
assemble  at  stated  times,  in  a  place  called  Ocadh,  where  every 
poet  produced  his  best  composition,  and  which  was  sure  to  meet 
with  an  impartial  judgment  and  the  applause  it  deserved:  the 
best  of  these  poems  were  transcribed  in  characters  of  gold,  and 
hung  up  in  the  temple,  whence  they  were  named  Modhahebat  or 
Golden  and  Moallakat  or  Suspended.  Seven  of  these  ancient 
poems  were  suspended  on  the  wall  or  gate  of  the  Caaba,  or  Tem- 
ple of  Mecca.  The  following  extracts  from  the  poem  of  Amri- 
olkais,  as  translated  by  Sir  William  Jones,  will  serve  as  speci- 
mens of  their  style  of  composition.  The  author  gives  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  his  horse : 

"Ready  in  turning,  quick  in  pursuing,  bold  in  advancing-,  firm  in  barking;  and  per- 
forming the  whole  with  the  strength  and  swiftness  of  a  vast  rock,  which  a  torrent  has 
pushed  from  its  lofty  base;" 

"A  bright  bay  steed,  from  whose  polished  back  the  trappings  slide,  as  drops  of  rain 
glide  hastily  down  the  slippery  marble." 

"Even  in  his  weakest  state  he  seems  to  boil  while  he  runs;  and  the  sound,  which  he 
makes  in  his  rage,  is  like  that  of  a  bubbling  chaldron." 

"When  other  horses,  lhat  swim  through  the  air,  are  languid  and  kick  the  dust,  he 
rushes  on  like  a  flood,  and  strikes  the  hard  earth  with  a  firm  hoof." 

"He  make?  the  light  youth  slide  from  his  seat,  and  violently  shakes  the  skirts  of  a 
heavier  and  more  stubborn  rider;" 

"Rapid  as  the  pierced  wood  in  the  hands  of  a  playful  child,  which  he  whirls  quickly 
round  with  a  well  fastened  cord." 

"He  has  the  loins  of  an  antelope,  and  the  thigh  of  an  ostrich;  he  trots  like  a  wolf, 
and  gallops  like  a  young  fox." 

"Firm  are  his  haunches;  and,  when  his  hinder  parts  are  turned  towards  you,  he  fills 
the  space  between  his  legs  with  a  long  thick  tail,  which  touches  not  the  ground,  and 
iii'-lines  not  to  either  side." 


"His  back,  when  he  stands  in  his  stall,   resembles  the   smooth  stone  on  which  per- 
fumes are  mixed  for  a  bride,  or  the  seeds  of  coloquinteda  are  bruised." 


He  thus  describes  a  violent  storm  of  rain  and  lightning: 


"O  friend,  seest  thouthe  lightning,  whose  flashes  resemble  the  quick  glance  of  two 
hands  amidst  clouds  raised  above  clouds?" 

"The  fire  of  its  gleams,  like  the  lamps  of  a  hermit,  when  the  oil,  poured  on  them, 
shakes  the  cord  by  which  they  are  suspended." 

"I  sit  gazing  at  it,  while  my  companions  stand  between  Daaridge  and  Odhaib;  but  far 
distant  is  the  cloud  on  which  my  eyes  are  fixed.' ' 

"Its  right  side  seems  to  pour  its  rain  on  the  hills  of  Katan,  and  its  left  on  the  moun- 
tains of  Sataar  and  Zadbul." 


s 


. 

I 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  933 


*'It  continues  to  discharge  its  waters  over  Cotaifa  till  the  rushing  torrent  lays  pros- 
trate the  groves  of  Canahbel  trees." 

"It  passes  over  mount  Kenaan,  which  it  deluges  in  its  course,  and  forces  the  wild 
goats  to  descend  from  every  cliff."  . 

"On  mount  Taima  it  leaves  not  one  trunk  of  a  palm-tree,  nor  a  single  edifice  which  is 
not  built  with  well  cemented  stone." 

"Mount  Tebier  stands  in  the  heights  of  the  flood  like  a  venerable  chief  wrapped  in  a 
striped  mantle." 

"The  summit  of  Mogaimer,  covered  with  the  rubbish  which  the  torrent  has  rolled 
down,  looks  in  the  morning  like  the  top  of  a  spindle  encircled  with  wool." 

"The  cloud  unloads  its  freight  on  the  desert  of  Ghabeit,  like  a  merchant  of  Yemen 
alighting  with  his  bales  of  rich  apparel." 

"The  small  birds  of  the  valley  warble  at  dpybreak,  as  if  they  had  taken  their  early 
draught  of  generous  wine  mixed  with  spice." 

"The  beasts  of  the  wood,  drowned  in  the  floods  of  night,  float  like  the  roots  of  wild 
onions,  at  the  distant  edge  of  the  lake."* 

The  seven  poems  above-mentioned,  were  written  some  time 
before  Mahomet,  but  how  long,  is  uncertain,  and  their  authors 
were  Amralkeis,  Tarafa,  Zopeir,  Antara,  Amru,  Hareth  and 
Lebeid.  The  originals  with  translations  of  the  whole  are  pre- 
served in  the  works  of  Sir  William  Jones.  Although  the  ex- 
tracts above  are  sufficient  to  show  the  style  of  Arabic  poetry,  so 
far  as  it  can  be  shown  by  a  translation,  we  cannot  refrain  from 
presenting  the  following  beautiful  version  of  apart  of  the  poem 
of  Lebeid,  by  the  above  celebrated  writer: 

But  ah!  thou  know'st  not  in  what  youthful  play 

Our  nights,  beguil'd  with  pleasure,  swam  away; 

Gay  songs,  and  cheerful  tales,  deceiv'dthe  time, 

And  circling  goblets  made  a  tuneful  chime; 

Sweet  was  the  draught,  and  sweet  the  blooming  maid, 

Who  touch'dher  lyre  beneath  the  fragrant  shad«; 

We  sip'd  till  morning  purpled  ev'ry  plain; 

The  damsels  slumbered,  but  wesipp'd  again: 

The  waking-  birds  that  sung  on  every  tree 

Their  early  notes,  were  not  so  blithe  as  we.f 


Besides  the  poems  above-mentioned,  there  are  some  other  col- 
lections of  Arabic  poetry,  preserved  in  European  libraries,  the 
most  distinguished  of  which  is  called  Hamasa,  and  contains  a 
number  of  epigrams,  odes  and  elegies,  composed  on  various  oc- 
casions; it  was  compiled  by  a  poet  named  Abu  Teman. 

In  Arabian  literature,  that  species  of  poetry  so  early  and  so 

*  See  the  works  of  Sir  William  Jones,  vol.  10. 
)  Ibid,  vol.  10,  p.  343,  Essay  on  the  Poetry  of  the  Eastern  Natioits 

30 


234  HISTORY  01   LITERATURE. 

successfully  cultivated  by  the  Greeks,  namely,  dramatic,  seems 
to  have  been  entirely  unknown,  and,  of  course,  theatrical  repre- 
sentations formed  no  part  of  their  amusements.  This  kind  of 
entertainment  was  supplied  by  the  recitation  of  tales  by  persons 
who  gained  a  livelihood  by  srtch  employments,  of  which  we  havo 
still  extant  many  interesting  specimens  in  the  "Arabian  Night's 
Entertainments."  These  tales,  decorated  with  all  the  beauty 
and  variety  of  eastern  imagery,  convey  us  into  fairy  regions  and 
bewilder  the  imagination  with  the  most  brilliant  descriptions — 
splendid  palaces  adorned  with  diamonds,  rubies  and  emeralds 
dazzle  the  eye — gardens  loaded  with  every  variety  of  fruit,  and 
vocal  with  the  music  of  a  thousand  birds,  captivate  the  senses, 
whilst  females  adorned  with  every  grace  and  arrayed  in  match- 
Jess  beauty,  convey  us,  in  imagination,  to  the  gardens  of  the 
Houri,  the  paradise  of  Mahomet.'  These  tales,  of  which  the 
''Arabian  Nights"  form  but  a  small  portion,  are  still  recited  in 
the  coffee-houses  of  the  east.  "The  reciter,  or  story  teller,  walks 
to  and  fro  in  the  middle  of  the  coffee-room,  stopping  only  now  and 
then,  when  the  expression  requires  some  cmphatical  attitude. 
He  is  commonly  heard  with  great  attention;  and  not  unfrc- 
quently  in  the  midst  of  some  interesting  adventure,  when  the 
expectation  of  the  audience  is  raised  to  the  highest  pitch,  he 
breaks  off  abruptly,  and  makes  his  escape  from  the  room,  leav- 
ing both  his  hero  and  heroine,  and  his  audience,  in  the  utmo&t 
embarrassment.  Those  who  happen  to  be  near  the  door,  en- 
deavor to  detain  him,  insisting  on  the  story  being  finished  before 
he  departs;  but  he  always  makes  his  retreat  good,  and  the  au- 
dience, suspending  their  curiosity,  are  induced  to  return  at  th< 
same  hour  next  day  to  hear  the  sequel."*  "The  physicians," 
says  Sismondi,  "frequently  recommend  these  story  tellers  to  their 
patients,  in  order  to  soothe  pain,  to  calm  agitation,  or  to  pro- 
duce sleep  after  long  watchfulness;  and,  accustomed  to  sick- 
ness, they  modulate  their  voices,  soften  their  tones,  and  gently 
suspend  them,  as  sleep  steals  over  the  sufferer."! 

The  influence  of  Arabian  learning  was  very  sensibly  felt  upon 
(he  literature  and  science  of  Europe,  and  particularly  after  the 
conquest  of  Spain,  when  their  schools  were  resorted  to  by  chris- 

•  See  the  preface  and  introductory  chapter  to  Scottf?  translation  of  ihe  "Arabian 
Sights."   ,/  * 

'•  Literature  of  the  South  of  Europe,  p.  38. 

* 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  235  ? 

tians,  who  carried  back  with  them  many  of  their  peculiar  no- 
tions in  philosophy,  which  almost  insensibly  became  incorpora- 
ted with  the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  The  influence  thus  ex- 
erted, although  it  may,  in  some  degree,  have  added  to  the  cor- 
ruptions of  the  Christian  faith,  in  the  process  of  time  introduced 
such  a  love  for  learning,  and  such  a  desire  to  investigate  almost 
every  subject,  and  elucidate  every  science,  that  it  opened  the 
way  for  that  flood  of  light  which  burst  upon  the  Christian  world 
*n  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  reign  of  Al-Mamon  produced  several  learned  and  distin- 
guished men, celebrated  in  the  history  of  Arabian  literature;  to 
notice  all  would  greatly  exceed  the  limits  of  this  work;  we  must, 
therefore,  content  ourselves  with  giving  a  brief  sketch  of  the 
most  distinguished,  among  whom  was  Al-Kendi,  a  native  of  Bas- 
sora,  who  attained  such  distinction  among  the  learned  men  of 
his  time,  as  to  be  called  "The  Philosopher."  He  received  his 
earliest  instructions  in  literature  in  the  schools  of  Bassora, 
which  were  afterwards  perfected  in  the  more  celebrated  semi- 
naries of  Bagdad,  then  the  resort  of  the  learned  under  the  im- 
mediate protection  of  the  commander  of  the  Faithful.  As  a 
philosopher,  he  was  devoted  to  the  doctrines  of  Aristotle,  whose 
writings  were  his  chief  study,  and  much  of  his  time  was  occupi- 
ed in  explaining  and  illustrating  the  peculiar  principles  of  the 
peripatetic.  He  was  also  a  mathematician  and  astronomer  of 
considerable  eminence,  and  his  acquirements  in  medicine,  and 
skill  as  a  physician,  were  held  in  high  repute.  Al-Kendi,  in  his 
great  zeal  to  render  the  principles  of  philosophy  subservient  to 
every  useful  purpose,  attempted  the  difficult  task  of  reconciling 
the  doctrines  of  the  koran,  with  the  principles  of  reason,  which 
gave  great  offence  to  some  of  the  learned  doctors  of  the  Maho- 
metan law,  and  subjected  him  to  the  heavy  charges  of  impiety 
and  heresy.  Al-Kendi,  however,  found  means  not  only  to  sub- 
due the  prejudices  and  opposition  of  the  principal  person  oppo- 
sed to  him,  but  actually  became  his  teacher  in  that  very  system, 
of  philosophy  he  had  previously  condemned  and  persecuted,  so 
far  as  he  had  power. 

Jll-Farabi,  was  another  celebrated  philosopher  of  the  school 
of  Bagdad;  he  flourished  in  the  tenth  century,  and  acquired  so 
much  celebrity,  that  he  attracted  the  particular  notice  of  his  so- 
who  was  anxious  to  load  him  with  honor?,  which  IIP  do 


236  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

clined,  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  study  of  philosophy. 
He  was  naturally  of  a  gloomy  temper,  and  in  a  great  measure 
withdrew  from  the  world,  leading  a  solitary  and  abstemious  life. 
Like  all  the  philosophers  of  his  time,  he  was  a  devoted  disciple 
of  the  peripatetic  school,  and  wrote  no  less  than  sixty  distinct 
treatises  on  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle,  which  were  riot  only  ad- 
mired by  the  Arabians,  but  by  the  Jews  who  translated  them 
into  Hebrew. 

Al-Rasi,  Al-Ashari,  Abul-Husein  and  Avicenna,all  flourished  in 
the  tenth  century  and  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh.  They 
were  all  distinguished  for  their  knowledge  and  skill  in  the  vari- 
ous departments  of  literature  and  science.  Al-Rasi  was  distin- 
guished as  a  physician,  and  wrote  many  treatises,  which  were 
considered  very  valuable,  on  medicine  and  chemistry.  Al-Ashari 
was  the  founder  of  a  new  sect  among  the  Mahometans,  known 
by  the  name  of  Asharites,  which  became  exceedingly  popular, 
and  his  writings  were  so  much  esteemed,  that  they  were  read 
and  explained  in  the  schools.  Abul-Husein  was  eminent  as  an 
astronomer,  and  is  said  to  be  the  first  who  described  a  celestial 
planisphere.  But  few  of  the  Arabian  literati  attained  as  high  a 
reputation  as  Avicemui.  This  distinguished  philosopher  and 
physician,  was  a  native  of  Bochara,  and  was  born  in  the  year 
978.  Before  he  reached  his  eighteenth  year,  he  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  sciences,  with  several  languages,  and  was 
conversant  with  the  Mahometan  law.  He  removed  from  Bo- 
chara to  Bagdad,  in  order,  by  attending  that  celebrated  school, 
to  become  a  perfect  master  of  the  doctrines  of  philosophy.  He 
prosecuted  his  studies  with  great  zeal  and  industry,  but  in  the 
pursuit  of  knowledge,  he  was  influenced  by  a  superstitious  feel- 
ing, inconsistent  with  his  great  reputation.  It  is  related  of  him, 
that  whenever  he  was  perplexed  with  any  subject,  he  repaired 
to  the  mosque  and  prayed  for  divine  direction;  after  which 
he  fancied  that  all  he  desired  to  know  was  communicated  to 
him  in  his  sleep.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  wrote  with 
great  rapidity  and  ease.  He  was  the  author  of  many  works  on 
morals,  metaphysics,  astronomy  and  medicine.  At  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  he  planned  and  completed  a  work  entitled  "The 
Utility  of  Utilities,"  embracing  a  view  of  all  the  sciences,  which 
extended  to  twenty  volumes.  Although  Avicenna  was  held  in 
high  estimation,  and  was  regarded  by  his  contemporaries  as  a 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


237 


luminous;  profound  and  methodical  writer,  who  never  touched  a 
subject  without  adorning  it,  some  modern  critics  have  attempted 
to  snatch  the  wreath  from  his  brow,  and  reduce  him  to  a  mere 
compiler  without  taste  or  judgment.  He  died  in  prison  in  the 
58th  year  of  his  age.  His  imprisonment  was  occasioned  by  his 
refusal,  to  take  off  by  poison  the  brother  of  the  Sultan,  who 
was  meditating  a  rebellion. 

The  last  Arabian  writer  we  shall  notice  until  we  speak  of  the 
Arabs  of  Spain,  is  Al-Gazel,  who  flourished  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. He  was  celebrated  among  the  Mahometan  doctors  for  his 
zeal  in  defence  of  Islamism,  and  his  writings  against  the  Jews 
and  Christians.  All  his  zeal  in  favor  of,  and  his  devotion  to,  the 
doctrines  of  Mahomet,  did  not  save  him  from  the  charge  of  he- 
resy, and  some  of  his  writings  were  ordered  to  be  burned.  Al- 
Gazel,  after  living  some  years  at  Bagdad,  in  the  character  of 
teacher,  assumed  the  habit  of  a  pilgrim,  and  travelled  to  Mecca, 
where,  after  having  visited  the  shrine  of  the  prophet,  he  travelled 
through  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  returned  to  Bagdad,  where  he 
died. 

In  the  year  712,  the  Arabians  (or  Saracens,  as  they  were 
also  called.)  having  made  themselves  masters  of  that  part  of 
Africa  which,  at  present,  includes  the  empire  of  Morocco  and 
the  kingdoms  of  Algiers,  Tripoli  and  Tunis,  were  invited  to 
make  a  descent  upon  Spain,  by  count  Julian,  whose  daughter 
king  Roderic  had  dishonored,  while  her  father  was  engaged  in 
the  defence  of  Cueta.  At  this  time  Walid  was  Caliph  of  Bag- 
dad, and  Musa  was  his  lieutenant,  or  vice-roy  of  Africa.  Musa, 
after  receiving  permission  of  the  caliph,  despatched  a  conside- 
rable army,  under  the  command  of  Tarik,  a  celebrated  general, 
which  landed  at  Gibraltar.  Roderic  immediately  raised  an 
army  consisting  of  ninety  thousand  men  to  repel  this  invasion. 
Both  armies  met  near  Xeres,  in  Andalusia,  where  Roderic  was 
defeated  and  slain,  and  Spain  became,  in  a  few  years,  subject  to 
the  Moors,  as  the  Arabians,  or  Saracens,  were  called  after  they 
conquered  Mauritania. 

"They  come!  they  come!  I  see  the  groaning  lands 

White  with  the  turbans  of  each  Arab  horde, 
Swart  Zaarah  joins  her  misbelieving  bands, 

Allah  and  Mahomet  their  battle  word 

THR  choice  they  yield  the  koran  or  the  sword." 

Vision  of  Don  Roderic, 


238  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

After  the  battle  of  Xeres,  count  Julian  recommended  to  the 
victorious  Tank,  to  march  directly  to  the  city  of  Toledo,  then 
the  capital  of  the  Gothic  monarchy,  in  order  that  the  Christians 
might  not  have  time  to  elect  a  new  monarch.  Tarik  followed 
his  advice — Toledo  surrendered  to  his  arms,  and  in  a  few  months 
Spain  was  overran  by  the  Saracens.  Musa,  on  being  informed 
of  the  success  of  Tarik,  passed  over  into  Spain,  at  the  head  of 
ten  thousand  Arabs  and  eight  thousand  Africans,  and  completed 
what  his  general  had  so  auspiciously  commenced.  Musa,  how- 
ever, was  envious  of  the  fame  of  Tarik,  who  had  left  him  so  lit- 
tle to  do.  "Their  first  interview  was  cold  and  formal:  a  rigid 
account  was  exacted  of  the  treasures  of  Spain;  the  character 
of  Tarik  was  exposed  to  suspicion  and  obloquy ;  and  the  hero  was 
imprisoned,  reviled  and  ignominiously  scourged  by  the  hand,  or 
the  command,  of  Musa.  Yet  so  strict  was  the  discipline,  so 
pure  the  zeal,  or  so  tame  the  spirit  of  the  primitive  moslems. 
that,  after  this  public  indignity,  Tarik  could  serve  and  be  trusted 
in  the  reduction  of  the  Tarragoncse  province."*  Musa,  in  or- 
der to  secure  his  conquests,  granted  to  the  inhabitants  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion  and  laws,  on  condition  they  would  pay 
the  same  tribute  they  paid  their  former  sovereigns.  In  the 
treaty  between  the  son  of  Musa  and  Theodemir,  it  was  express- 
ly stipulated,  that  "no  injury  should  be  offered  to  life  or  pro- 
perty, the  wives  and  children,  the  religion  and  temples  of  chris- 
tians."  Such  moderation  served,  in  a  great  degree,  to  reconcile 
the  Goths  to  Arabian  rule,  and  soften  the  rigors  usually  attend- 
ant upon  conquest. 

The  conquests  of  Musa  were  rapid  and  brilliant,  and  his  am- 
bition prompted  him  to  cross  the  Pyrenees,  and  extinguish  the 
kingdoms  of  the  Franks  and  Lombards.  For  this  purpose  he 
was  preparing  a  powerful  army,  and  he  would  probably  have 
overrun  Europe,  had  he  not  been  deprived  of  his  command  by 
the  caliph,  who  sent  a  special  messenger,  by  whom  he  was  ar- 
rested in  his  camp  at  Lugo  in  Gallicia.  He  was  conducted  to 
Damascus,  then  the  seat  of  the  caliphate,  and  after  being  fined 
two  thousand  pieces  of  gold,  he  was  publicly  whipped.  He  was 
succeeded  in  the  government  of  Spain  by  Abdurrahman,  who, 

'J  f\  ibboa's  Rom.  Einp.  vol.  6,  p.  394 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  239 

having  invaded  France,  was  defeated  and  slain  in  a  battle  be- 
tween Poictiers  and  Tours,  by  Charles  Martel. 

The  Emirs*  or  governors  of  Spain  were  appointed  by,  and  were 
dependant  upon,  the  viceroy  of  Africa,  as  he  was  himself  on  the 
caliph  of  Bagdad  or  Damascus.  They  were,  therefore,  more 
busily  employed  in  levying  contributions  on  the  Spaniards,  in 
order  £0  fill  their  own  coffers,  than  in  promoting  their  comfort 
and  happiness.  This  state  of  things  continued  until  A.  D.  756, 
when,  the  dignity  of  caliph  having  passed  from  the  family  of  the 
Ommiades  to  that  of  the  Abbassides,  an  independent  govern- 
ment was  established  in  Spain  by  Abdurrahman,  (called  also 
Almanzor,)  a  prince  of  the  Ommiades,  who  escaped  that  general 
destruction  of  his  family,  which  secured  the  throne  of  Bagdad 
to  the  house  of  Abbas. 

Abdurrahman  fixed  his  residence  at  Cordova,  a  city  beauti- 
fully situated  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Guadalquiver,  in  a 
spacious  plain,  bounded  by  the  mountains  of  the  Sierra  Morena. 
Abdurrahman,  who  had  imbibed  a  taste  for  learning,  which  had 
made  its  appearance  among  the  Arabs  before  the  destruction  of 
his  family,  was  celebrated  for  his  munificent  protection  and  en- 
couragement of  whatever  could  contribute  to  the  happiness  of 
his  subjects,  and  the'splendor  of  his  reign.  He  made  Cordova 
the  seat  of  learning,  of  arts,  magnificence  and  pleasure ;  by  which 
means  he  softened  and  refined  the  manners,  not  only  of  his  own 
countrymen,  but  of  the  native  Spaniards,  who,  under  the  Gothic 
kings,  were  rude,  illiterate  and  almost  strangers  to  the  "gentler 
passions  of  our  nature.  He  embellished  the  city  with  many 
splendid  edifices,  one  of  which,  the  present  cathedral  of  Cordova, 
still  remains  a  monument  of  Moorish  grandeur  and  magnificence, 
notwithstanding  the  many  changes  it  has  undergone  since  it  was 
converted  into  a  Christian  temple.  Although  master  of  nearly 
the  whole  of  Spain,  and  at  the  head  of  a  victorious  army,  he  did 
not  persecute  the  Christians — he  rather  chose  to  overturn  their 
religion  by  other  mean?,  similar  to  those  adopted  by  Julian,  the 
npostate,  and  which  produced  a  striking  effect.  By  reserving 
all  offices  of  honor  and  profit  for  the  followers  of  the  prophet — 
by  promoting  marriages  between  Christians  and  Mahometans, 
and  other  strokes  of  policy,  he  soon  extirpated  almost  every 
vestige  of  Christianity  in  Spain;  indeed  the  followers  of  Christ 
were  scarcely  sren.  except  in  tho  rprr-pses  of  tho  mountains  of 


^40  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Asturias,  were  Pelagic  founded  a  Christian  kingdom,  whihc 
boldly  and  successfully  resisted  every  attempt  of  the  Moorish 
kings.  About  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  the  race 
of  Abdurrahman  became  extinct,  and  the  kingdom  of  Cordova 
was  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  sovereignties. 

Cordova  continued  the  principal  seat  of  learning  until  A.  D. 
J013,  when  the  royal  residence  was  transferred  to  Grenada,  a 
city  built  by  the  Moors,  and  in  the  embellishment  of  which  their 
kings  spared  no  expense.  Of  the  magnificence  of  their  build- 
ings, the  royal  palace  of  the  Alhambra  still  remains  a  striking  arid 
splendid  evidence,  although  now  fast  hastening  to  decay.  The 
love  of  learning  became  so  general,  that  universities,  colleges, 
and  schools  were  established  in  almost  every  city;  the  most 
celebrated,  however,  of  these  seats  of  learning,  were  Cordova 
and  Grenada.  In  the  latter  city,  in  the  year  1126,  there  were 
two  universities,  two  royal  colleges,  and  a  public  library,  con- 
taining many  thousand  volumes,  of  the  most  esteemed  and  cele- 
brated Greek  and  Arabic  writers — literary  foundations  of  more 
value  than  existed  in  the  whole  of  Christian  Europe  at  that  pe- 
riod. At  this  time,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  period  when 
Spanish  literature  attained  its  zenith,  there  were  established  in 
the  several  cities  of  the  kingdom,  about  seventy  public  libraries, 
containing  upwards  of  six  hundred  thousand  volumes — an  im- 
mense number,  when  we  remember  that  the  art  of  printing  being 
then  unknown,  books  were  all  in  manuscript,  a  tedious  and  ex- 
pensive* process  for  the  preservation  of  the  results  of  human 
learning.  The  Arabian  writers  enumerate  a  vast  number  of 
authors  who  were  eminently  distinguished  for  their  great  attain- 
ments, and  although  their  pride  and  national  vanity  may  have 
induced  them  to  swell  the  list,  it  will  be  acknowledged  by  all 
who  have  looked  into  the  subject,  that  they  excelled  in  almost 
fcvery  branch  of  learning  and  science,  whilst  the  rest  of  the  world 
were  sunk  in  mental  barbarism.  To  their  zeal  in  the  sacred 
cause  of  learning  we  are  indebted  for  the  preservation  of  many 
ancient  writers,  whose  works  would  otherwise  have  been  lost: 
so  little  were  they  prized  by  their  Christian  neighbors,  and  so 
ignorant  were  they  of  their  real  value,  that  the  most  valuable 
treatises  were  frequently  erased  to  make  room  for  the  legend  of 
some  saintly  impostor.  To  such  distinction  did  the  schools  of 
Cordova  and  Grenada  attain  among  the  Christians  of  Europe. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  241 

that  Catholic  bishops  resorted  thither  to  attend  the  lectures  and 
instructions  of  Mahometan  doctors. 

If  we  look  only  to  the  present  ignorant,  enslaved  and  degraded 
condition  of  the  followers  of  Mahomet,  and  the  present  "high 
and  palmy"  state  of  literature  in  the  Christian  world,  we  may 
find  it  difficult  to  reconcile  the  intellectual  superiority  to  which 
the  former  attained,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Abbassides  in 
Arabia,  and  Ommiades  in  Spain.  But  the  wonder  ceases  when 
we  turn  over  the  pages  of  history,  and  compare  these  monarchs 
with  the  Christian  rulers  of  Europe,  and  we  sigh  when  we  con- 
template the  contrast.  The  caliphs  of  Bagdad  and  the  Moorish 
kings  of  Spain,  of  the  dynasties  alluded  to,  were,  in  general, 
learned,  liberal  and  enlightened ;  enjoying  the  benefit  of  learning 
themselves,  they  were  enabled  to  appreciate  its  blessings,  and 
its  salutary  effects  upon  the  human  mind,  they  had,  therefore, 
no  fear  of  its  injurious  influence  when  generally  diffused  among 
their  subjects,  but  rather  rejoiced  in  its  dissemination.  The  Po- 
tentates of  Christian  Europe,  although  surrounded  with  the  em- 
blems of  royalty,  were  "rude  in  manners  and  in  speech,"  and 
delighted  only  in  scenes  of  war  and  rapine. 

Beneath  their  battlements,  within  their  walls, 
Power  dwelt  amidst  her  passions;  in  proud  state 
Each  robber  chief  upheld  his  armed  halls, 
Doing  his  evil  will,  nor  less  elate 
Than  mightier  heroes  of  a  longer  date. 

Lord  Byron, 

They  were  under  the  complete  control  of  an  ambitious  and 
profligate  clergy,  who,  seeking  only  to  extend  their  own  power 
and  influence,  had  usurped   almost  all  the  prerogatives  of  gov- 
ernment; instead  of  leading  the  minds  of  men  in  the  ways  of 
truth  and  righteousness,  they  were   usually  found  in  the  courts 
of  princes  promoting  and  encouraging,  almost  every  species  of 
crime;  they  appeared  more  like  the  emissaries  of  the  prince  of 
darkness,  than  the  meek  and  humble  followers  of  the  lamb  of 
God;  they  were  interested  in  keeping  up  this  general  ignorance, 
because,  in  the    diffusion  of  knowledge,  they  saw  the  certain 
downfal  of  their  power  and  influence.     To  the  influence  of  the 
clergy,  therefore,  may  be  mainly  attributed  the  low  and  degra- 
ded state  of  learning  throughout  Christian  Europe,  at  the  time 
it  flourished  among  the  Arabians. 

-       31        x. 

5.  £>• 


242  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE*. 

The  Moorish  kingdoms  of  Spain  were  equally  prolific  in  i 
nious  and  intelligent  authors,  as  the  empire  of  Arabia,  a  few 
of  whom  we  will  notice.  Avenpacc,  who  flourished  in  the 
twelfth  century,  wrote  a  commentary  upon  Euclid;  he  was  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle,  but  applying 
it  to  the  explanation  of  the  koran,  he  was  suspected  of  heresy 
and  was  thrown  into  prison.  Avcnzoar,  was  a  native  of  Seville, 
anct  was  celebrated  for  his  skill  in  the  practice  of  medicine,  and 
the  improvements  he  introduced  into  the  science.  Amongst  the 
most  learned  and  celebrated  of  the  Spanish- Arabian  writers  of 
the  age  in  which  he  lived,  was  Avcrroes,  who  was  born  about  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  of  a  noble  family  of  Cordova. 
He  was  instructed  at  an  early  age  in  the  law  of  the  prophet,  to 
which  he  added  a  knowledge  of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy,  a 
favorite  study,  as  before  remarked,  with  the  Arabian  philoso 
phers.  Under  Avenzoar  he  studied  medicine,  and  under  com- 
petent teachers  made  himself  master  of  mathematics.  In  con- 
sequence of  his  learning  and  talents,  ho  \va<  advanced  to  high 
and  important  offices,  which  he  filled  with  honor.  His  rapid  ad- 
vancement and  extraordinary  fame,  induced  his  rivals  to  charge 
him  with  heresy,  and  in  order  to  prove  the  charge,  they  engaged 
several  young  persons  to  receive  instructions  from  him  in  philo- 
sophy. These  young  men  took  minutes  of  every  opinion  ad- 
vanced by  their  preceptor,  which  appeared  to  contradict  the 
doctrines  of  Mahomet,  and  thus  the  charge  of  heresy  being 
proven,  he  was  commanded  in  future  to  reside  among  the  Jews, 
and  his  goods  were  confiscated.  After  undergoing  a  variety  of 
persecutions,  Averroes  removed  to  Morocco,  where  he  died  aboui 
the  close  of  the  twelfth  century.  Ho  was  highly  celebrated 
for  his  personal  virtues,  and  practised  the  most  rigid  temperance. 
He  spent  large  sums  in  liberal  donations  to  learned  men,  with- 
out making  any  distinction  between  his  friends  and  his  enemies: 
for  which  his  apology  was,  that  in  giving  to  his  friends  and  rein 
lions,  he  only  followed  the  dictates  of  nature;  but  in  giving  t< 
his  enemies,  he  obeyed  the  command  of  virtue.  Averroes  was  a 
voluminous  writer,  and  his  pen  was  employed  on  a  variety  of 
subjects.  As  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  was  the  favorite  sys 
tern,  he  partook  of  the  enthusiasm  of  the  age,  and  much  of  his 
time  was  employed  in  writing  commentaries  upon  the  works  of 
the  peripatetic,  which  he  regarded  as  "so  perfect,  that  none  o.f 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

his  followers,  through  a  space  of  fifteen  hundred  years,  were 
able  to  make  the  smallest  improvement  upon  them,  or  to  dis- 
cover the  least  error  in  them;  a  degree  of  perfection,  truly  mi- 
raculous, that  proved  him  to  have  been  rather  a  divine  than  a 
human  being."  So  exalted  was  his  admiration  of  Aristotle,  that 
lie  says  of  him,  "that  he  was  created  and  given  to  the  world* 
by  Divine  Providence,  that  we  might  see  in  him,  how  much  it 
was  possible  for  man  to  know."  The  extravagant  opinion  en- 
tertained by  Averroes,  with  regard  to  Aristotle  and  his  philoso- 
phy, was  common  to  all  the  Arabian  writers,  particularly  those 
who  had  any  pretensions  to  the  character  of  philosophers;  they 
looked  upon  him  as  one  to  whom  all  the  secrets  of  nature  had 
been  laid  open,  and  who  alone  was  capable  of  explaining  its 
mysteries;  and  he  who  was  most  conversant  with  his  writings 
was  regarded  as  the  ablest  philosopher. 

Although  philosophy  was  a  favorite  study  with  the  Arabians, 
their  researches  extended  to  other  subjects,  and  if  we  are 
not  indebted  to  them  for  the  discovery  of  certain  sciences,  we 
owe  to  their  zeal  and  intelligence  many  important  improve- 
ments. The  natural  sciences  were  pursued  with  considerable 
ardor;  to  mineralogy  and  botany,  two  interesting  branches  of 
natural  history,  several  Arabian  naturalists,  devoted  great  part 
of  their  lives,  collecting  specimens  and  describing  their  various 
properties;  their  descriptions,  however,  were  not  so  minute  and 
particular  as  modern  science  requires,  nor  was  the  classical  ar- 
rangement of  the  different  subjects,  so  plain  and  intelligible,  as 
that  of  modern  naturalists.  What  they  wanted  in  knowledge 
they  made  up  in  zeal,  and  they  thus  opened  the  ways  of  science 
which  have  been  successfully  followed  by  the  learned  of  later 
times.  To  the  Arabians  we  are  indebted  for  many  important 
discoveries  in  the  useful  and  instructive  science  of  chemistry — a 
science  which  is  daily  laying  open  the  most  sublime  views  of  the 
operations  of  nature,  and  developing  and  explaining  facts  which, 
without  its  aid,  would  be  inexplicable.  Besides  the  advantages 
in  science  we  have  derived  from  them,  we  are  indebted  to  their 
skill  and  ingenuity,  for  many  useful  and  important  inventions. 
Of  these  inventions  it  is  unnecessary  to  make  any  precise  enu- 
meration in  this  place. 

Whilst  we  feel  and  acknowledge   the  influence  of  Arabian 
learning,  in  introducing  that  revival  of  letters  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 

•:'-.«»•<, 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

*  >* 

tury,  which  has  shed  such  a  brilliant  light  over  the  world,  in  the 

language  of  the  eloquent  Sismondi  we  ask,  "What  remains  of 
so  much  glory?  Not  more  than  live  or  six  individuals  are  in  a 
situation  to  take  advantage  of  the  manuscript  treasures  which 
are  enclosed  in  the  library  of  the  Escurial.  The  boundless  re- 
gions where  Islamism  reigned,  and  still  continues  to  reign,  are 
now  dead  to  the  interests  of  science.  The  rich  countries  of 
Fez  and  Morocco,  illustrious  for  five  centuries,  by  the  number 
of  their  academies,  their  universities  and  their  libraries,  are  now 
only  deserts  of  burning  sand,  which  the  human  tyrant  disputes 
with  the  beast  of  prey.  The  smiling  and  fertile  shores  of  Mau- 
ritania, where  commerce,  arts  and  agriculture  attained  their 
highest  prosperity,  are  now  the  retreats  of  corsairs.  Egypt  has, 
by  degrees,  been  swallowed  up  by  the  sands  which  formerly  fer- 
tilized it.  Syria  and  Palestine  are  desolated  by  the  wandering 
Bedowins,less  terrible  still  than  the  Pacha  who  oppresses  them. 
Bagdad,  formerly  the  residence  of  luxury,  of  power  and  of 
knowledge,  is  a  heap  of  ruins.  The  celebrated  universities  of 
Cufa  and  Bassora  are  extinct.  The  prodigious  literary  riches 
of  the  Arabians,  no  longer  exist  in  any  of  the  countries  where 
the  Arabians  and  Mussclmen  rule.  It  is  not  there  we  must  seek, 
either  for  the  fame  of  their  great  men,  or  for  their  writings. 
What  have  been  preserved  are  in  the  hands  of  their  enemies, 
in  the  convents  of  the  monks,  or  in  the  royal  libraries  of  Eu- 
rope. And  yet  these  vast  countries  have  not  been  conquered. 
It  is  not  the  stranger  who  has  despoiled  them  of  their  riches, 
who  has  annihilated  their  population,  and  destroyed  their  laws, 
their  manners  and  their  national  spirit.  The  poison  was  their 
own;  it  was  administered  by  themselves,  and  the  result  has 
been  their  own  destruction."'* 

To  the  defeat  of  Almanzor  A.  1).  998 — the  extinction  of  the 
race  of  Abdurrrahman,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century, 
and  the  consequent  division  of  the  kingdom  of  Cordova  into  se- 
parate sovereignties,  the  downfal  of  the  Moorish  power  in  Spain 
may  be  ascribed,  although  the  Moors  were  not  finally  conquered 
until  A.  D.  1402,  when  the  city  of  Granada,  the  last  hold  of 
Moorish  power,  fell  before  the  united  arms  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  the  sovereigns  of  Castile  and  Leon.  This  conquest  ter- 
minated the  contests  between  the  Moors  and  Christians  in  Spain, 


*  Sismondi's  Lit.  of  the  South  of  En.  vol  1.  p.  43 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  345 

which  had  existed  upwards  of  seven  hundred  years.  The  long 
dominion  of  the  Arabs,  the  intermarriages  of  the  proudest  fami- 
lies of  the  Visigoths,  with  their  Arabian  conquerors,  and  the 
consequent  union  of  interests,  must,  of  necessity,  have  exercised 
an  extensive  influence,  not  only  upon  the  relations  of  life,  but 
upon  the  religion,  the  language  and  the  literature  of  Spain* 
The  language  of  Spain,  as  spoken  during  the  rule  of  the  Visi- 
goths, was  a  mixture  of  the  German  with  the  Latin;  this  remark, 
however,  must  be  considered  as  applying  generally,  as  some  of 
the  provinces  spoke  a  different  dialect.  After  the  conquest  of 
Spain  by  the  Arabs,  the  language  was  enriched  by  the  introduc- 
tion and  adoption  of  many  Arabic  words,  which  increased  its 
-energy  and  copiousness.  The  influence  of  Arabian  upon  Spa- 
nish literature,  was  felt  and  acknowledged  long  after  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Moors,  more  particularly  in  their  ballads  arid  their 
love  songs,  which  were  distinguished  for  that  simplicity  of  lan- 
guage and  tenderness  of  feeling  that  marked  the  early  poets  of 
Arabia. 

The  earliest  Spanish  poem  of  celebrity,  of  which  we  have  any 
account,  is  the  "Cid;"  there  are,  however,  many  minor  pieces 
extant  of  an  earlier  date,  consisting  principally  of  songs  and  bal- 
lads. The  "Cid"  is  regarded  as  the  national  poem  of  the  Spa- 
niards, and  was  written  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century. 
It  is  founded  upon  the  warlike  exploits  of  Don  Roderigo  Laynes, 
sirnamed  the  CzW,  who  eminently  distinguished  himself  in  the 
wars  between  the  Christians  and  Moors,  in  the  eleventh  centu- 
ry. Although  the  language  of  the  poet  is  far  from  being  refined, 
or  elegant,  and  seldom  rises  above  that  of  a  barbarous  chroni- 
cler, he  relates  the  incidents  of  his  hero's  life  with  great  fideli- 
ty, not  even  omitting  or  extenuating  such  as  place  his  character, 
at  least  for  morality,  in  no  very  elevated  light.  In  addition  to 
the  information  we  collect,  with  regard  to  the  history  of  the 
times,  we  learn  something  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
age.  The  following  extracts  will  serve  as  a  specimen  of  this 
celebrated  poem. 

The  Cid,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  king,  had  married  his  two 
daughters,  Donna  Elvira  and  Donna  Sol,  to  Don  Diego  and  Don 
Ferdinand,  sons  of  Gonzales,  count  of  Carion,  who  proved  them- 
selves unworthy  of  such  an  alliance.  Having  espoused  the 
daughters  of  the  Cid  from  avaricious  motives,  they  determined 


24$  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ? 

to  rid  themselves  of  them  on  their  journey  to  their  own  castles 
Arriving  at  the  forest  of  Corpes,  they  resolved  to  put  their 
bloody  design  into  execution: 

The  mountains  there  are  high,  and  the  branches  seem'd  to  rest 

Upon  the  clouds,  and  wild  beasts  did  the  travellers  molest. 

They  found  a  pleasant  orchard,  through  which  a  streamlet  went, 

And  there  they  presently  resolved  that  they  would  pitch  their  tent; 

That  by  them  and  those  they  brought  with  them  the  night  might  there  be  spent. 

They  press'd  their  ladies  to  their  hearts,  with  the  words  which  love  affords; 

But  when  the  morning  came,  it  seem'd  they  had  forgot  those  words. 

Orders  were  given  by  them  to  load  their  baggage — a  rich  store ; 

The  tent  in  which  that  night  they  slept  was  folded  up  once  more! 

And  the  servants  who  had  care  of  them  had  all  push'd  on  before. 

The  Infants  so  had  order'd  it,  that  no  one  should  remain, 

Excepting  Donna  Elvira  and  Donna  Sol,  their  wives  twain. 

The  Infants  then  took  their  bridle  reins  and  lashed  their 
wives  until  the  blood  started  from  the  wounds,  and  falling 
senseless  on  the  ground,  their  cruel  and  unfeeling  husbands, 
supposing  them  dead,  left  them  and  proceeded  on  their  journey. 
Fortunately,  Felez  Munos,  whom  the  Cid  had  directed  to  ac- 
eompany  his  daughters,  discovered  their  situation,  and  having 
restored  them  to  their  senses,  conducted  them  to  a  place  of  safe- 
ty. The  Cid  on  being  informed  of  the  treatment  his  daugh- 
ters had  received  at  the  hands  of  their  husbands,  demanded  of 
the  king,  that  the  outrage  should  be  judged  by  the  cortes  of  the 
kingdom.  The  king  grants  his  request,  and  the  Cid  having  re- 
covered two  swords  he  had  presented  his  sons-in-law,  and  th* 
jowry  of  his  daughters,  he  thus  addresses  the  king: 

Justice  and  Mercy,  my  lord  the  king,  I  beseech  you  of  your  grace' 
I  have  a  grievance  left  behind,  which  nothing  can  efface. 
Let  all  men  present  in  the  court  attend  and  judge  the  case, 
Listen  to  what  these  courts  have  done  and  pity  my  disgrace. 
Dishonor'd  as  I  am,  I  cannot  be  so  base 
But  here  before  I  leave  them,  to  defy  them  to  their  face. 
Say,  Infants,  how  had  I  deserv'd,  in  earnest  or  in  jest, 
Or  on  whatever  plea  you  can  defend  it  best, 
That  you  should  rend  and  tear  the  heartstrings  of  my  breast? 
I  gave  you  at  Valencia  my  daughters  in  your  hand, 
I  gave  you  wealth  and  honors,  and  treasure  at  command: 
Had  you  been  weary  of  them,  to  cover  your  neglect, 
You  might  have  left  them  with  me,  in  honor  and  respect. 
Why  did  you  take  them  from  me,  Dogs  and  Traitors  as  you  were? 
In  the  forest  of  Corpes,  why  did  you  strip  them  there? 
Why  did  you  mangle  them  with  whips?  why  did  you  leave  them  bare 
To  the  vultures  and  the  wolves,  and  to  the  wintry  air? 
The  count  will  hear  your  answer,  and  judge  what  you  have  done,. 
name  and  honor  henceforth  is  lost  and  gone. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  341 

The  king  decides  that  the  matter  shall  be, settled  by  combat 
between  the  Infants  of  Carion  and  the  champions  of  the  Cid  on 
the  following  day,  but  the  Infants  demand  three  weeks  to 
prepare  themselves,  which  is  granted.  At  the  time  appointed, 
the  combatants  meet,  and  having  entered  the  lists,  the  combal 
ensues,  which  is  thus  described: 

The  heralds  and  the  king  are  foremost  in  the  place, 

They  clear  away  the  people  from  the  middle  space: 

They  measure  out  the  lists,  the  barriers  they  fix: 

They  point  them  out  in  order,  and  explain  to  all  the  six : 

"If  you  are  forc'd  beyond  the  line  where  they  are  fix'd  and  trac'd, 

You  shall  be  held  as  conquer'd  and  beaten  and  disgrac'd." 

Six  lances  length  on  either  side  an  open  space  is  laid, 

They  share  the  field  between  them,  the  sunshine  and  the  shade. 

Their  office  is  performed  and  from  the  middle  space 

The  heralds  are  withdrawn,  and  leave  them  face  to  face, 

Here  stood  the  warriors  of  the  Cid,  that  noble  champion 

Opposite  on  the  other  side,  the  Lords  of  Carion, 

Earnestly  their  minds  are  fix'd  each  upon  his  foe; 

Face  to  face  they  take  their  place,  anon  the  trumpets  blow. 

They  stir  their  horses  with  the  spur,  they  lay  their  lances  low, 

They  bend  their  shields  before  their  breasts,  their  faces  to  the  saddle  bow 

Earnestly  their  minds  are  fix'd  each  upon  hia  foe. 

The  heavens  are  overcast  above,  the  earth  trembles  below. 

The  people  stand  in  silence  gazing  on  the  show ; 

Bermues  the  first  challenger,  first  in  combat  clos'd, 

He  met.Ferran  Gonzalcs,  face  to  face  oppos'd; 

They  rush  together  with  such  rage  that  all  men  count  them  dead. 

They  strike  each,  other  on  the  shield,  without  all  fear  or  dread. 

Ferran  Gonzales  with  his  lance  pierce'd  the  shield  outright, 

ft  pass'd  Bermues  on  the  left  side,  in  his  flesh  it  did  not  bite 

The  spear  was  snapp'd  in  twain,  Bermues  sat  upright, 

He  neither  flinch'd  nor  swerv'd  like  a  true  steadfast  knight. 

A  good  stroke  ho  received,  but  a  better  he  has  given; 

He  struck  the  shield  upon  the  boss,  in  sunder  it  is  riven 

Onward  into  Ferran's  breast  the  lance's  point  is  driven, 

Full  upon  his  breast  plate,  nothing  would  avail, 

Two  breast  plates  Fernando  wore  and  a  coat  of  mail : 

The  two  are  riven  in  sunder,  the  third 'stood  him  instead 

The  mail  sunk  in  his  breast,  the  mail  and  the  spear  head 

The  blood  burst  from  his  mouth  that  all  men  thought  him  dead 

The  blow  has  broken  his  girdle  and  his  saddle  girth, 

It  has  taken  him  over  his  horse's  back,  and  born  him  to  the  earlh 

The  people  think  him  dead  as  he  lies  on  the  sand ; 

Bermues  left  his  lance  and  took  his  sword  in  hand. 

Ferran  Gonzales  knew  the  blade  which  he  had  worn  of  old , 

Before  the  blow  came  down,  he  yielded  and  cried,  "hold!1' 

Antolines  and  Diego  encounter'd  man  for  man, 

Their  spears  were  shiver'd  with  the  shock,  so  eagerly  they  ran 

Antolines  drew  forth  the  blade  which  Diego  once  had  worn,  i 

fiagerly  he  aimed  the  blow  for  the  vengeance  he  had  sworn 


J4«  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

Right  through  Diego's  helm  the  blade  its  edge  has  borne, 
The  crest  and  helm  are  lopt  away,  the  coif  and  hair  are  shorn, 
He  stood  astounded  with  the  stroke,  trembling  and  forlorn, 
He  waved  his  sword  above  his  heath  he  made  a  piteous  cry, 
"O  save  me  from  that  blade,  Almighty  Lord  on  high !" 
Antolines  came  fiercely  on  to  reach  the  fatal  stroke, 
Diego's  courser  rear'd  upright,  and  through  the  barrier  broke. 
Antolines  has  won  the  day,  though  his  blow  was  miss'd 
He  has  driven  Diego  from  the  field,  and  stands  within  the  list. 

The  heralds  proclaim  that  the  champions  of  the  Cid  have 
conquered,  and  the  injuries  inflicted  upon  his  daughters  aveng- 
ed.* The  exploits  of  the  Cid  formed  the  subject  of  numerous 
ballads  and  romances,  by  Spanish  writers,  and  the  tragedy  of 
the  Cid,  by  Corneille,  is  one  of  the  noblest  in  the  French  lan- 
guage. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  flourished  Gonzales  de  Berceo.  He 
was  a  monk  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Millan,  where  he  passed  the 
greater  part  of  his  life,  and  he  became  strongly  impressed  with 
that  peculiar  feeling  and  mode  of  thinking  that  belonged  to  the 
monks  of  his  age.  He  was  a  poet;  nine  of  his  poems  have  been 
preserved,  all  of  which  treat  on  sacred  subjects,  and  the  mira- 
cles attributed  to  saints.  As  a  poet  he  was  equally  careless, 
common-place  and  dull,  and  his  works  shew  that  the  inspirations 
of  nature  were  banished  from  the  cells  of  monasteries. 

A  distinguished  writer  of  the  thirteenth  century,  was  Alphon- 
zo  X,  king  of  Castile.  He  was  a  great  patron  of  letters,  and  in- 
vited to  his  court  many  of  the  philosophers  and  learned  men  of 
the  east,  whose  works  he  caused  to  be  translated  into  the  Cas- 
tilian.  He  caused  a  general  history  of  Spain  to  be  composed  in 
the  Castilian  language — he  prohibited  the  use  of  Latin  in  law 
proceedings,  and  directed  them  to  be  carried  on  in  the  language 
of  the  country — he  compiled  and  published  that  code  of  Spanish 
law  known  by  the  name  of  Las  Partidas.  He  was  celebrated  as 
an  astronomer,  and  in  order  to  improve  the  science,  invited,  from 
all  parts  of  Europe,  persons  who  were  skilled  in  it,  and  employed 
them  in  correcting  the  astronomical  tables  of  Ptolemy.  He 
eomposed  a  variety  of  treatises  on  various  subjects,  besides  sev- 
eral poems,  one  of  which  "The  Book  of  Leisure,"  is  an  exposi- 
tion of  the  secrets  of  alchymy,  written  in  a  manner  that  renders 
it  totally  unintelligible.  His  zeal  in  the  cause  of  literature  and 

*  Srsmond'rsLit.offheSouthof  Eur.,vol.8. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 


249 


his  own  writings  contributed  in  a  considerable  degree  to  the 
progress  of  knowledge,  and  on  that  account  is  worthy  the  re- 
membrance of  posterity. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  flourished  Prince  Don  Juan  Manual. 
He  was  alike  distinguished  for  his  bravery  and  his  talents  as  a 
general,  as  for  his  learning  and  genius.  As  a  writer,  his  princi- 
pal work  is  "Count  Lucanor"  a  collection  of  novels  or  tales,  de- 
signed to  convey  instruction  not  only  in  morals  but  in  politics. 
He  sometimes  laid  aside  the  gravity  of  the  statesman  and  mor- 
alist, and  indulged  himself  in  the  composition  of  romances  and 
love  verses,  which  were  written  in  that  natural  style  that  affects 
the  heart  and  interests  the  feelings. 

Contemporary  with  Prince  Juan,  was  Vasco  de  Lobeira,  the 
author  of  Amadis  de  Gaul,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  romances- 
of  the  age  of  chivalry.  He  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  The  Amadis  of  Gaul  is  said  to  have  been 
borrowed  from  the  works  of  the  French  writers  of  the  twelfth 
century.  Although  the  scene  is  laid  in  France,  and  the  hero 
never  enters  Spain,  or  engages  in  any  adventures  with  the 
Moors,  the  contests  with  whom  possessed  the  highest  interest  for 
every  Spaniard,  yet  it  became  the  favorite  romance  of  the 
Spaniards,  and  was  read  with  an  avidity  and  enthusiasm,  ex- 
cited by  few  other  works  of  a  similar  character  This  work  is 
easy  and  graceful  in  the  narrative,  and  full  of  that  animation 
and  gaiety  which  render  such  works  interesting.  It  breathes 
an  amiable  spirit  of  gallantry  without  that  insipidity  which 
characterizes  love  stories,  arid  is  remarkable  for  a  chastity  of 
expression  which  adds  new  grace  to  the  images  of  voluptuous- 
ness.* This  celebrated  romance  was  imitated  in  a  variety  of 
works,  which  were  held  in  the  highest  repute.  They  were  sung 
by  soldiers  on  their  march,  by  the  rustics  in  their  daily  labors, 
and  by  the  women  during  their  domestic  occupations. 

On  the  revival  of  learning,  Spain  produced  several  writers 
in  the  various  walks  of  literature  and  science,  who  would  do 
honor  to  any  nation,  particularly  during  the  reign  of  Charles  V, 
when  she  could  boast  of  an  Almagaver  and  Garcilaso  de  la 
Vega,  distinguished  as  poets,  and  Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  distill- 

•     'i 

»  Cours  cle  la  Lit.  tome  13,  p.'  368 :  Sis.  Lit.  of  the  South  of  Eu.  vol.  2,  p.  112« 

32 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


guished  as  a  poet  and  prose  writer.     A  further  notice  of  them 
does  not  come  within  the  plan  of  the  present  work. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


History  of  literature  from  the  accession  of  Charlemagne  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eleventh  century. 

CHARLEMAGNE  was  the  wonder  of  his  age,  the  most  extraor- 
dinary man  who  had  appeared  for  many  centuries.  Endowed 
by  nature  with  talents  of  a  superior  order,  he  projected  and  ex- 
ecuted enterprises  that  elevated  him  to  the  highest  rank  among 
earthly  potentates,  and  his  empire  to  the  highest  pitch  of  glory. 
His  vices,  which  we  are  constrained  to  acknowledge  were  many, 
may  be  attributed  to  the  rude  and  uncultivated  manners  of  the 
times,  and  the  looseness  of  morals  which  then  prevailed,  rather 
than  to  a  natural  depravity. of  heart,  or  attachment  to  vicioi^ 
indulgences.  The  restraints  of  religion  were  not  then  so  effica- 
cious as  in  modern  times;  its  principles  and  directions  were  but 
imperfectly  understood;  the  best  Christian  was  he  who  best  sup- 
ported the  interests  of  the  clergy.  The  virtues  which  Charle- 
magne often  displayed  in  public  and  private  life;  the  zeal  he- 
manifested  for  the  good  of  his  subjects  and  the  prosperity  of  his 
empire,  ought,  like  charity,  to  cover  the  vices  with  which  contem- 
poraneous history  has  stained  his  character.  By  the  power  of  hi^ 
genius  alone,  he  was  enabled  to  unite  the  discordant  parts  of  his 
vast  empire,  and  keep  his  nobles  in  subjection,  who,  in  those  tur- 
bulent times,  were  continually  inclined  to  revolt.  "In  the  histo- 
ry of  the  times,"  says  the  historian  of  the  middle  ages,  "he 
stands  alone  like  a  beacon  upon  a  waste,  or  a  rock  in  the  broad 
ocean.  His  sceptre  was  the  bow  of  Ulysses,  which  could  no! 
be  drawn  by  any  weaker  hand.  His  reign  a  solitary  resting 
place  between  two  long  periods  of  turbulence  and  anarchy,  de- 
'  ivinor  the  advantages  of  contrast,  both  from  those  of  the  pro< «  <) 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 


251 


ing  dynasty  and  of  posterity,  for  whom  he  had  formed  an  em- 
pire, which  they  were  unworthy  and  unequal  to  sustain."* 
Charlemagne  appears  to  much  greater  advantage,  when  com- 
pared with  the  greater  number  of  his  predecessors,  from  the  time 
of  Clovis,  the  founder  of  the  French  monarchy,  after  whose  de- 
mise, with  few  exceptions,  the  kings  of  France  were  totally  un- 
worthy of  the  high  stations  they  occupied.  Ignorant,  supersti- 
tious, and  directed  and  controlled  in  every  thing,  whether  rela- 
ting to  church  or  state,  by  an  aspiring  and  ambitious  priestyiood, 
they  were  incapable  of  accomplishing  any  thing,  either  for  their 
personal  or  for  the  national  glory ;  indeed,  so  much  had  they 
degenerated  from  the  parent  stock,  that  after  Cloitaire  II,  the 
great  grandson  of  Clovis,  they  were  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  insensati,  or  idiots,  and  the  royal  power  was  exercised  by  the 
mayors  of  the  palace.  The  turbulent  and  unsettled  condition 
of  the  country,  the  internal  commotions  and  contests  for  empire, 
and  their  almost  continual  wars  with  the  Saracens  of  Spain,  and 
with  other  neighboring  nations,  left  the  kings  of  France  but  lit- 
tle leisure,  had  they  even  possessed  the  taste  and  inclination  to 
cultivate  the  seeds  of  science  and  nourish  the  plant  of  literature. 
It  was  reserved  for  Charlemagne,  whose  conquering  sword,  and 
(irmly  rooted  power,  had  established  peace  at  home,  to  set  an 
example,  as  a  patron  of  literature,  worthy  to  be  followed  by  his 
successors. 

The  early  years  of  Charlemagne  are  said  to  have  been  passed 
after  the  manner  of  the  youth  of  those  times,  in  military  and 
other  manly  exercises  and  amusements;  he  paid  but  little  atten- 
tion to  learning,  until  he  was  about  thirty  years  of  age,  when, 
being  struck  with  his  importance,  he  invited  to  his  court  Alcuin, 
an  Englishman  celebrated  for  his  extensive  acquirements,  and 
deservedly  so,  for  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  Under  Egbert? 
archbishop  of  York,  Alcuin  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  Latin, 
Greek  and  Hebrew  languages,  and  also  considerable  knowledge 
of  mathematics  and  other  branches  of  science  then  taught.  Hi^ 
arrival  in  France  introduced  a  new  era  in  her  literary  history. 
He  became  the  instructer  of  the  emperor  himself  in  the  various 
sciences  then  known  and  taught,  in  which  he  soon  acquired 
considerable  knowledge;  he  also  made  himself  perfect  master 

•    Hallam'?  VHHV  of  the  Middle  Ages,  vol.  1 


252  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

of  the  Latin  language,  and  attained  such  a  knowledge  of  the 
Greek,  as  to  be  able  to  read  it — a  rare  accomplishment  even 
among  the  higher  clergy.  He  was  so  assiduous  in  the  prosecution 
of  his  studies,  that  in  addition  to  the  acquirements  above-men- 
tioned, he  was  able  to  converse  with  foreign  ambassadors  in 
Arabic,  Scotch,  German  and  English.  Charlemagne  collected 
about  his  person  all  such  as  were  distinguished  for  learning,  and 
established  in  his  palace  an  academy,  or  literary  society,  com- 
posed principally  of  ecclesiastics.  Of  this  academy  or  society, 
he  was  himself  a  member.  At  its  meetings,  those  subjects  which 
constituted  the  chief  learning  of  the  times  were  discussed,  and 
as  Charlemagne  valued  himself  on  his  great  skill  in  theology,  the 
discussion  of  subjects  connected  therewith,  occupied  a  conside- 
rable portion  of  their  time.  The  discussion  of  points  of  doc- 
trine, although  of  itself,  not  very  well  calculated  to  promote  ge- 
neral literature,  in  this  particular  instance  had,  no  doubt,  a  con- 
siderable influence  in  extending  knowledge,  as  it  induced  those 
concerned  in  the  discussion,  to  examine  more  minutely,  the 
grounds  of  their  respective  opinions,  and  by  thus  instituting  a 
spirit  of  inquiry,  led  them  sometimes  to  enter  the  more  expanded 
field  of  science. 

Charlemagne  established  schools,  academies  and  universities 
in  various  parts  of  his  empire,  particularly  at  Paris,  Tours  and 
Soissons,  and  rewarded  Alcuin  with  princely  munificence.  He 
conferred  upon  him  three  abbeys  of  great  value,  the  lands  at- 
tached to  which,  contained  a  population  of  twenty  thousand 
souls,  all  contiibuting  to  support  the  splendor  and  dignity  of  this 
powerful  abbot.  This  unexampled  liberality,  on  the  part  of  the 
emperor,  affords  conclusive  proof,  if  other  proofs  were  wanting, 
of  his  disposition  to  encourage  learned  men,  and  extend  the  be- 
nefits of  learning. 

As  Alcuin,  under  the  patronage  of  Charlemagne,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  restorer  of  learning  in  France,  some  of  our  rea- 
ders may  be  curious  to  know  something  of  the  plan  of  education 
recommended  by  him.  Great  attention  to  orthography  and 
pronunciation,  which  had  been  previously  much  neglected,  was 
first  recommended  to  the  pupil;  he  was  then  instructed,  in  suc- 
cession, in  grammar,  dialectics,  rhetoric  and  the  higher  branches 
of  philosophy ;  this  constituted  the  whole  course  of  study,  and 
was  communicated  in  Latin,  the  language  of  the  learned,  ir 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


253 


which  all  the  works  of  the  times  were  composed.  The  mode  of 
instruction  adopted  by  Alcuin,  and  which  was  probably  followed 
in  all  the  schools,  appears  to  have  been  catechetical,  as  the 
best  means  of  making  a  lasting  impression.  The  following  ex- 
tract  from  his  "Treatise  on  Dialectics,"  will  serve  as  a  specimen 
of  his  manner.  It  purports  to  be  a  dialogue  between  Charlej 
magne  and  Alcuin: 

Charlemagne.     Into  how  many  parts  is  philosophy  divided  ? 

Alcuin.     Into  three,  viz.  physics,  ethics  and  logic. 

C.  Express  these  in  Latin  phrase. 

A.  Physics  is  natural  philosophy;  ethics  is  moral  philosophy,  and  logic  is  rational 
philosophy,  or  the  art  of  reasoning. 

C.  Explain  their  meaning  more  fully. 

A.  Physics  is  the  investigation  of  natural  causes;  ethics,  of  the  principles  and  con- 
duct of  life;  logic,  the  principles  or  method  of  understanding. 

C.  Into  how  many  parts  are  physics  divided? 

A.  Into  four — arithmetic,  geometry,  music  and  astronomy. 

C.  Into  how  many  parts  are  ethics  divided? 

A.  Into  four  also,  viz.  prudence,  justice,  fortitude  and  temperance. 

C.  Into  how  many  parts  is  logic  divided? 

A.  Into  two — dialectics  and  rhetoric. 

C.  What  is  dialectics? 

A.  It  is  the  art  of  inquiring,  of  defining  and  of  disputing  or  arguing. 

C.  What  is  the  difference  between  dialectic  and  rhetoric? 

A.  The  same  difference  as  between  a  closed  and  an  open  hand.  The  former  con- 
tracts, the  latter  copiously  enlarges  the  subject;  the  one  is  more  acute  to  invent,  the 
other  more  eloquent  to  address  and  persuade;  the  first  requires  retirement  and  study, 
the  second  an  audience;  it  may  be  one  or  more  persons,  or  a  crowded  assembly. 

Although  Charlemagne  established  schools  and  encouraged 
learned  men  by  his  liberality,  literature  did  not  make  that  pro- 
gress throughout  his  empire,  that  might  have  been  expected. 
His  efforts  were  directed  to  this  great  end  with  a  praiseworthy 
perseverance,  but  neither  his  power  nor  his  example,  could 
overcome  the  barbarism  of  the  times,  and  inspire  his  nobles  with 
a  love  of  literature.  Could  they  have  been  induced  to  have  se- 
conded his  generous  design,  and  encouraged  learning  among 
their  vassals,  we  might  have  beheld  it  throwing  aside  the  shac- 
kles which  had  so  long  bound  it  to  the  earth,  and  springing  into 
vigorous  existence. 

The  state  and  condition  of  learning  will  be  best  understood 
by  mentioning  some  of  the  literary  foundations  of  Charlemagne, 
and  the  different  branches  of  science  taught  in  them.  Primary 
schools  were  established  in  different  parishes  for  the  instruction 
of  children.  These  schools  were  under  the  direction  of  the 


254  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


curates,  whoso  learning  se^pm  extended  beyond  reading  the 
Lord's  prayer  in  Latin;  of  course,  the  amount  of  instruction 
there  received  was  very  limited.  A  After  learning  the  alphabet, 
the  children  were  taught  to  read  the  psalter  and  commit  it  to 
memory.  This  constituted  the  whole  course  of  instruction  in 
the  primary  schools,  beyond  which  a  great  proportion  of  the 
pupils  never  advanced.  Next  to  these,  schools  were  attached 
to  cathedrals  and  monasteries,  intended  for  the  education  of 
those  designed  for  the  church,  in  which  the  course  of  study  was 
more  extended.  Jn  these  schools  were  taught  grammar,  rheto- 
ric and  church  music — the  latter  then  considered  an  important 
branch  of  the  education  of  a  priest.  Lastly,  the  universities 
or  colleges;  these  were  established  at  Paris,  Soissons,  Tours  and 
other  cities,  where  the  system  of  instruction  was  still  more  am- 
ple, and  the  course  of  study  more  extensive,  which  embraced 
what  was  then  called  the  Trivium  and  the  Quadrivium.  The 
Trivium  included  grammar,  rhetoric  and  dialectics;  the  Quadri- 
vium,  music,  arithmetic,  geometry  and  astronomy.  He  who  was 
master  of  these  several  sciences,  was  thought  to  possess  every 
qualification  necessary  for  the  complete  investigation  of  every 
department  of  human  knowledge,  and  was  esteemed  a  philoso- 
pher. Although  these  institutions  of  learning  were  opened  to 
all  who  chose  to  enter  their  portals  in  search  of  knowledge,  but 
few  availed  themselves  of  the  advantages  they  offered,  except 
those  who  were  destined  for  the  church.  The  nobles  devoted 
to  war  and  warlike  amusements  and  exercises,  thought  them- 
selves degraded  by  the  pursuits  of  learning.  They  were  con- 
tent to  hear  a  minstrel  recite  the  exploits  of  their  warlike  pro- 
genitors, or  a  monk  relate  the  legendary  story  of  their  patron 
saints.  The  inferior  laity  were  equally  careless  and  indifferent 
on  the  subject  of  learning,  which  indifference  and  carelessness, 
were  encouraged  by  the  monks  and  clergy,  who  had  no  inclina- 
tion to  foster  and  protect  institutions  which  would  awaken  a  spi- 
rit of  inquiry,  or  have  a  tendency  to  diminish  their  influence. 
How  different  from  the  conduct  of  the  more  enlightened  clergy 
of  the  present  day,  whose  mental  energies  are  devoted  to  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge  as  the  most  effectual  means  of  propoga- 
ting  that  gospel,  of  which  they  are  the  ministers!  This  perni- 
cious policy  of  the  clergy  of  keeping  the  people  in  ignorance  oi 
y  thing  but  what  they  thought  proper  to  teach,  so  general) v 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  355 

prevailed,  that,  notwithstanding  the  expressed  wishes  of  the 
emperor,  literature  and  science  were  but  little  known  beyond  the 
walls  of  the  cloister.  Yet,  these  very  monks  and  clergy  exhibit 
to  the  world  the  singular  fact,  of  being  at  once  the  preservers 
and  the  enemies  of  learning.  They  were  its  enemies  because, 
actuated  by  a  selfish  policy,  they  used  their  influence  to  prevent 
its  extension  beyond  the  circle  of  their  own  body — its  preser- 
vers, because,  although  unable  to  comprehend  or  appreciate, 
the  literary  treasures  they  possessed,  their  monasteries  were  the 
depositaries  of  some  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  the  ancient 
poets,  philosophers  and  historians  of  Greece  and  Rome. 

At  this  period  the  art  of  writing  had  arrived  at  greater  per- 
fection than  any  other  branch  of  education.  The  copying  of 
manuscripts  was  one  of  the  principal  occupations  of  the  monks, 
in  the  retirement  of  their  cloisters,  and  while  they  conferred  a 
benefit  upon  posterity,  by  their  labors  in  transcribing  the  works 
of  ancient  authors,  the  employment  afforded  some  relief  to  their 
monotonous  course  of  life.  Their  breviaries,  the  legends  of 
their  saints  and  other  religious  books,  were  written  with  peculiar 
beauty  in  letters  of  gold,  and  in  ink  of  various  colors.  The 
margins  and  the  heads  of  the  chapters  were  often  adorned  with 
delicately  executed  drawings,  and  not  unfrequently  with  the 
miniatures  of  those  fair  dames  who  graced  the  halls  of  baronial 
castles,  and  whose  presence  softened  the  rude  manners  of  the 
times.  Many  of  these  illuminated  volumes  are  still  carefully 
preserved  in  the  public  and  private  libraries  of  Europe,  as  mo- 
numents of  the  skill  and  patience  of  the  monks. 

Among  the  writers  of  this  era,  we  must  rank  Charlemagne 
himself.  He  was  not  a  voluminous  author,  but  his  writings  en- 
title him  to  high  commendation,  particularly  when  we  remem- 
ber the  age  in  which  he  lived,  the  time  of  life  at  which  he  be- 
gan his  literary  pursuits,  and  the  multiplicity  of  concerns  that 
engaged  his  attention.  His  "Capitularies"  or  the  body  of  laws 
drawn  up  and  published  during  his  reign,  were,  probably,  pro- 
duced by  the  united  labor  of  himself  and  his  counsellors,  but  his 
letters  and  poetical  effusions,  are  less  equivocal  testimonies  of 
his  abilities.  His  letters  were  numerous,  and  were  principally 
addressed  to  the  clergy,  or  his  public  officers.  They  are  written 
in  an  easy  style,  not  unworthy  brighter  periods  of  literature,  in 
some  of  which  he  expre^e?  an  anxious  desiro  for  the  diffusion  of 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

learning,  and  a  laudable  spirit  for  inquiry.  He  was  a  great  ad- 
mirer of  the  muses,  and  sometimes  paid  his  devotions  at  their 
altar.  Several  of  his  poems  have  been  preserved,  one  of  which 
addressed  to  Winifrede,  a  monk  of  Cassin,  and  the  author  of  a 
ifistory  of  the  Lombards,  we  will  offer  as  a  specimen  of  his  style 
of  composition,  and  his  poetical  genius: 

Him  celeregrediens  celeri  mea  charta  volatu, 
Persylvas,  colles,  valles  quoque  prsepete  cursu, 
Alma  Deo  chari  Benedicts  tecta  require, 
Est  nam  certa  quies  fessis  venientibus  illuc; 
Hicolus  hospitibus;  piscis,  hie  panisabundat, 
Pax  pia,  menshumilis,  pulchra  et  concordia  fratruin. 
Laus,  amor,  et  cultus  Christi  simul  omnibus  horis ; 
Die  Patri.et  sociis  cunctis,  salvete  valete. 
Colla  mei  Pauli  guadendo  amplecte  benigne, 
Dicito  multoties,  salve  Pater  optime.     Salve. 

Go  swift  my  card,  o'er  hills  and  valleys  fly, 
Surpass  the  wind,  to  equal  thought  go,  try ; 
Enter  the  holy  mansion  of  my  Paul, 
His  hospitable  welcome  's  known  to  all: 
There  you  may  rest,  and  there  the  gen'rous  mind 
Contemplate  of  my  pious,  learned  friend; 
Humble,  though  eminent  amidst  the  throng 
Of  monks,  who  all  to  Mount  Cassin  belong, 
And  soon  as  matins  cease  these  lines  present, 
They  show  how  much  on  him  my  mind  is  bent. 
Salute  him  much,  salute  the  brethren  all, 
But  chief  and  oft  salute  the  noble  Paul. 

One  of  the  most  learned  men  and  principal  literary  ornaments 
of  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  and  of  his  empire,  was  Eginhard, 
his  son-in-law  and  secretary.  He  was  a  native  of  Germany,  but 
the  place  of  his  birth  is  unknown.  Early  in  life  he  visited  the 
French  court,  where  he  received  his  education,  as  appears  from 
the  preface  to  the  "Life  of  Charlemagne,"  wherein  he  says,  that 
he  was  induced  to  engage  in  the  work,  because  of  the  obliga- 
tions he  was  under  to  the  emperor  for  his  education.  He  en- 
joyed so  much  of  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  Charlemagne, 
that  he  not  only  made  him  his  secretary,  but  gave  him  his  daugh- 
ter Imma  in  marriage,  and  appointed  him  to  the  lucrative  office 
of  superintendent  of  public  buildings.  The  principal  writings 
of  Eginhard  are  his  "Life  of  Charlemagne"  and  his  "Annals,"  to 
which  we  are  principally  indebted  for  the  information  we  pos- 
sess, relative  to  the  life  and  character  of  the  extraordinary  per- 
sonage whose  reign  they  commemorate.  His  "Annals"  contains 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  257 

the  history  of  France,  from  the  year  741  to  A.  D.  829,  embra- 
cing the  reigns  of  Pepin,  Charlemagne,  and  part  of  that  of  Louis, 
and  is  composed  with  a  degree  of  judgment  and  discrimination 
greatly  exceeding  the  other  works  of  the  times  of  a  similar  cha- 
racter. His  "Life  of  Charlemagne,"  contains  the  private  and 
domestic  history  of  that  monarch,  in  which  he  enters  into  a  mi- 
nute account  of  his  character,  as  the  head  of  a  family  and  a  pri- 
vate man.  He  also  gives  a  brief  account  of  his  wars  and  con- 
quests, and  the  many  useful  public  works  he  caused  to  be  erect- 
ed. In  most  of  the  transactions  he  describes,  he  professes  to 
have  been  either  personally  engaged,  or  an  eye  witness  of  the 
manner  in  which  they  were  conducted.  As  a  writer,  Eginhard 
is  acknowledged  to  have  been  much  superior  to  any  of  his  age, 
particularly  in  historical  composition,  and  his  letters  are  remark- 
able for  purity  and  perspicuity  of  style.  His  wife  died  A.  D. 
837,  and  he  seems  to  have  deeply  lamented  her  loss;  he  himself 
died  A.  D.  839.  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  the  monastery 
of  Selgenstadt  in  Germany. 

Had  the  successors  of  Charlemagne  possessed  equal  abilities, 
with  the  same  energy  and  decision  of  character,  .the  seeds  of 
science  he  had  sown,  might  have  brought  forth  good  fruit;  but 
his  sceptre  unfortunately  fell  into  hands  too  feeble  to  wield  it. 
His  son  and  successor,  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  was  a  generous  but 
superstitious  prince,  and  soon  fell  a  victim  to  his  father's  impru- 
dent policy  of  dividing  his  empire  between  his  three  sons,  and 
to  the  machinations  of  the  clergy  who  sought  to  establish  a  right 
to  dethrone  kings  at  pleasure.  Louis,  however,  had  imbibed 
something  of  the  spirit  of  his  father  with  regard  to  literature, 
and  was  well  disposed  to  advance  its  interests,  and,  had  his 
reign  been  less  turbulent,  his  generous  efforts  might  have  re- 
sulted in  something  beneficial.  Charlemagne  in  his  own  person 
had  overcome  the  prejudices  of  the  age,  that  confined  the  pursuits 
of  learning  almost  exclusively  to  the  cloister,  and  had  done  much 
to  promote  the  cause  of  science,  but  his  example  made  but  little 
impression  upon  his  successors.  In  addition  to  a  disinclination 
on  their  part  to  undergo  the  fatigues  of  study,  the  disorder  of 
the  state,  the  almost  continual  revolts  and  contests  for  sovereign- 
ty, during  the  government  of  the  Carlovtngean  race,  contributed 
in  a  great  degree,  as  such  a  state  of  things  ever  will,  to  retard- 
and  check  the  general  diffusion  of;  knowledge.  In  these  boiste- 

'  ' 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

rous  and  troublesome  times,  even  the  monasteries,  heretofore 
generally  regarded  as  sanctuaries,  were  violated — they  were  in- 
vaded by  the  din  of  arms,  and  the  war-cry  echoed  from  cloister 
to  cloister.  In  the  destruction  of  these  houses  of  religious  re- 
tirement, many  valuable  libraries,  rich  in  ancient  manuscripts, 
were  burnt  or  otherwise  destroyed,  to  the  great  loss  of  after 
times.  In  such  a  state  of  society,  when  almost  every  political 
and  social  tie  was  severed,  when  the  retreats  of  learning  were 
broken  up,  and  when  war  was  the  almost  exclusive  occupation 
of  all  classes,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  literature  would 
flourish.  "In  circumstances  so  adverse  to  study,"  says  a  writer 
on  the  history  of  France,  when  speaking  of  the  literature  of  the 
age,  "the  mind  itself  degenerates,  the  attention  is  distracted; 
the  train  of  thought  turns  materially  on  thedungers  which  have 
with  difficulty  been  escaped,  and  on  the  evils  which  are  still  ap- 
prehended; the  mind  is  almost  continually  in  a  state  of  anxiety 
and  passion,  very  unfavorable  to  the  exercise  of  judgment  and 
the  cultivation  of  taste."* 

During  the  period  under  review,  in  addition  to  those  already 
mentioned,  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  produced  but  few  wri- 
ters, either  distinguished  for  weight  of  talents,  or  originality  of 
genius.  Between  the  death  of  Charlemagne  and  the  accession 
of  Hugh  Capet  A.  D.  897,  when  a  new  dynasty  ascended  tho 
throne  of  France,  twelve  kings  are  enumerated,  not  one  of  whom 
gave  themselves  any  trouble  about  the  concerns  of  literature  or 
the  advancement  of  science,  except  Charles  the  Bald,  son  of  Louis 
le  Dcbonnaire.  This  monarch  exerted  himself  in  the  propoga- 
tion  of  letters,  as  far  as  he  was  able  from  the  internal  condition 
of  his  empire.  He  increased-  the  number  of  schools  throughout 
the  empire,  and  endeavored  to  excite  a  spirit  of  emulation 
among  the  learned,  whom  he  invited  to  his  court — but  all  hb 
efforts  availed  but  little;  learning  was  rapidly  retrograding  to 
the  state  in  which  it  was  before  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  Some- 
thing more  was  wanting  than  mere  royal  patronage,  to  remove 
the  cloud  that  was  fast  gathering,  and  which  overspread  Chris- 
tian Europe  in  the  following  century.  In  Italy  Lothaire  endea- 
vored to  revive  the  sciences,  for  which  purpose  he  erected 


*  Rankius'  Hist,  of  France,  vol.  1. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  259 

schools  in  the  principal  cities,  but  little  success  attended  his  ef- 
forts. 

Historical  writing,  or  the  composition  of  annals  or  chronicles, 
and  disquisitions  on  abstruse  points  in  theology,  principally  oc- 
cupied the  attention  of  those  who  were  distinguished  by  the- 
-appellation  of  learned.  The  useful  and  interesting  sciences 
which,  at  the  present  day,  form  so  prominent  a  part  of  a  libe- 
ral education,  were  but  little  known,  and  so  little  regarded,  that 

the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  Gerbert,  archbishop  of  Rheims, 
was  regarded  as  a  magician,  because  he  understood  something 
of  geometry,  and  was  so  much  of  an  astronomer,  as  to  be  able 
to  understand  and  explain  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
Poetry  and  belle-lettres  were  but  little  -cultivated;  they  were 
nnsuited  to  so  barren  a  soil.  Historical  composition  was  more 
attended  to — but  how  unlike  the  works  of  those  ancient  histo- 
rians who  have  given  immortality  to  Greece  and  Rome!  How 
unlike  the  polished  writings  of  Herodotus  and  Tacitus,  of  Xeno- 
phon  or  Polybius!  Their  histories,  if  they  deserve  the  name, 
are  little  more  than  meagre  chronicles  of  passing  events,  with 
but  little  variety  in  the  style,  and  as  little  judgment  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed.  Their 
authors  seldom  indulged  in  reflections  upon  the  causes  which  led 
to  any  great  event  they  record ;  they  leave  their  readers  to 
draw  their  own  inferences.  The  most  celebrated  works  relat- 
ing to  the  history  of  the  times,  were,  the  "Annals  of  the  Abbey 
of  Saint  Bertin,"  written  by  different  authors,  which  contains 
the  history  of  France,  from  the  year  741  to  A.  D.  861;  the  "An- 
nals of  Fulda,"  which  embraces  a  period  of  one  hundred  and 
eighty-six  years,  from  A.  D.  741  to  A.  D.  000;  the  "Annals  of 
Metz,"  which  begins  with  the  foundation  of  the  French  mon- 
archy, and  is  continued  to  the  tenth  century;  the  "Memoirs  of 
Louis  le  Debonnaire,"  by  Thegan,  which,  besides  the  personal 
history  of  that  unfortunate  monarch,  contains  also,  the  history  of 
the  monarchy  from  his  accession  to  the  year  A.  D.  837. 

77iegYW,mentioned  above  as  the  author  of  the  memoi  rs  of  Louis  le 
Debonnaire,  like  all  the  learned  men  of  his  time,  was  an  ecclesias- 
tic, and  had  received  such  an  education  as  fitted  him  for  the  high 
office  of  coadjutor  to  the  bishop  of  Treves.  After  receiving  this 
appointment,  he  applied  himself  with  great  zeal  to  the  duties  of 
his  office,  attending  more  to  public  preaching,  than  to  private 


260  •        HISTORY  OP  LITERATURE. 

study.  His  principal  work  is  the  one  above-mentioned,  which, 
being  written  in  the  form  of  annals,  has  no  beauty  or  decora- 
tion of  style  to  recommend  it.  He  does  justice  to  the  character 
of  Louis,  his  benefactor,  and  does  not  spare  the  bishops,  who. 
after  being  raised  by  him  from  the  lowest  condition  in  life,  to 
rank  and  power,  became  his  most  violent  and  unrelenting  perse- 
cutors. Few  princes  suffered  more  from  the  violence  of  the 
clergy,  than  this  unfortunate  son  of  Charlemagne,  whose  virtues 
ought  to  have  secured  him  a  milder  fate.  With  a  temper  pecu- 
liarly gentle,  and  almost  incapable  of  being  excited  to  anger,  and 
withal,  remarkable  for  his  piety  and  devotion,  he  was  a  fit  sub- 
ject for  the  machinations  of  aspiring  bishops,  who  had  obtain- 
ed over  him  an  unbounded  influence.  This  influence  they  ex- 
erted in  dethroning  him,  and  subjecting  him  to  the  most  humi- 
liating penance.  They  caused  him  to  be  clothed  in  hair-cloth, 
and  prostrating  himself  on  the  ground  before  them,  he  humbly 
requested  that  he  might  be  admitted  to  discipline  according  to 
the  canons  of  the  church,  for  the  expiation  of  his  sins.  On  this 
occasion,  Hebo,  bishop  of  Rheims,  whom  he  had  raised  from 
the  lowest  condition  to  the  highest  order  of  the  church,  presided 
with  all  that  insolence  and  haughtiness  common  to  the  clergy  of 
the  times,  who  affected  to  believe,  that  they  received  their  au- 
thority immediately  from  God  himself.  Of  Hebo,  who,  forget- 
ful of  his  generous  benefactor,  thus  returned  evil  for  good,  The- 
gan  thus  speaks:  "Is  it  thus,  perfidious  wretch!  thou  requitest 
his  beneficence  who  raised  thee  from  a  state  of  slavery?  He 
clothed  thee  with  purple,  and  thou  hast  covered  him  with  sack- 
cloth; he  exalted  thee  to  the  summit  of  ecclesiastical  honor  and 
power,  and  thou  hast  deposed  him  from  the  throne  of  his  fa- 
thers." This  burst  of  honest  indignation  and  noble  feeling, 
should  impress  us  with  an  opinion  highly  favorable  to  the  moral 
and  religious  character  of  Thegan,  who,  amidst  the  corruption 
of  the  times,  regardless  of  the  frowns  of  his  superiors,  was  bold 
enough  to  step  forth  the  defender  of  his  injured  and  unfortunate 
benefactor. 

Contemporary  with  Thegan  was  Walafrid,  abbe  of  Richenou, 
supposed  to  be  the  author  of  the  "Annals  of  Fulda,"  of  which 
religious  house  he  had  been  an  inmate.  He  was  remarkable 
for  his  early  display  of  genius,  and  was  among  the  few  authors 
of  his  time  who  courted  the  muses.  His  principal  prose  work 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  y^ 

is  "An  account  of  the  ordinances  and  worship  of  the  Christian 
church,"  in  which  he  gives  a  history  of  the  origin  of  the  cere- 
monies used  by  the  church.  His  poetical  works  consist  of  the 
"Acts  and  Life  of  Mamma,"  a  saint  and  martyr  of  Cappadocia ;  a 
poem  entitled  the  "Flower  Garden,"  and  other  minor  poems. 
The  Life  of  Mamma,  consists  of  twenty-six  chapters,  and  de- 
scribes all  the  miracles  and  striking  events,  that  distinguished 
the  life  of  the  saint,  and  gave  him  a  high  character  for  sanc- 
tity. The  "Flower  Garden,"  consists  of  about  two  hundred 
lines,  in  which  he  treats  of  the  names  and  virtues  of  plants,  and 
gives  a  variety  of  directions  on  the  subject  of  gardening — this 
work  shows  him  to  have  been  one  of  those  who  could  walk 
abroad,  and  admire  the  wonderful  works  of  creation.  In  the 
literary  history  of  France  he  is  mentioned  as  one  who  deserved 
to  "be  ranked  among  the  most  eminent  writers  of  his  time.  There 
were  few  authors  who  wrote  better  than  he  did,  in  either  verse 
or  prose.  In  his  prose  there  is  a  purity,  a  smoothness  and  ar- 
rangement of  language,  which,  though  imperfect,  was  then  very 
rare.  His  poetical  pieces  have  not  all  the  same  beauty ;  in  some, 
there  is  a  want  of  fire,  of  elevation,  of  poetic  genius,  but  in  some 
of  them  we  see  all  those  qualities  beautifully  united." 

We  will  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  state  of  learning  in 
England.  Before  the  reign  of  Alfred,  justly  sirnamed  the  Great* 
the  literature  of  England,  like  that  of  France  before  the  reign 
of  Charlemagne,  was  in  a  very  humble  condition,  although  her 
history  boasts  the  name  of  the  venerable  Bede,  already  mention- 
ed. A  brief  sketch  of  the  condition  of  England,  previous  to  the 
reign  of  Alfred,  will  give  some  idea  of  the  causes  of  this  state  of 
things.* 

From  the  reign  of  Augustus  until  that  of  Valentinian  the 
younger,  about  A.  D.  440,  Britain  was  a  Roman  province,  and 
made  considerable  progress  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  arts 
and  sciences  introduced  by  her  enlightened  conquerors.  But 
when  the  magnificent  fabric  of  Roman  power  and  greatness,  which 
had  so  long  towered  above  that  of  all  other  nations,  was,  through 
the  folly  and  weakness  of  her  emperors,  shaken  to  the  foundation, 
the  situation  of  the  inhabitants  of  Britain  was  changed.  Pro- 
tected by  the  Roman  arms,  they  enjoyed  a  state  of  comparative 
ease  and  comfort,  and  were  enabled  not  only  to  cultivate  such 
arts  as  contributed  to  their  domestic  convenience,  but  to  pay  so 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

such  attention  to  learning,  that  many  schools  were  instituted  for 
the  education  of  youth  in  the  various  branches  of  science  then 
known.  The  exigencies  of  a  fallen  empire,  however,  required 
the  withdrawal  of  her  legions  from  a  distant  province  to  defend 
the  "Eternal  City"  itself  from  the  threatened  attack  of  her  Go- 
thic invaders,  and  the  deserted  Britons  were  exposed  to  the  in- 
roads of  their  more  rude  and  warlike  neighbors.  These  unhappy 
people  were  reduced  to  so  low  a  state,  that  in  a  letter  to  Aetius, 
the  victorious  general  of  Valentinian,  they  complained,  that  "the 
barbarians  on  the  one  hand,  drive  us  into  the  sea;  the  sea,  on 
the  other,  drives  us  back  upon  the  barbarians.  We  have  only 
the  hard  choi-ce  left  us  of  perishing  by  the  sword,  or  being  drown- 
ed in  the  deep."  In  this  deplorable  condition,  relying  upon 
their  own  skill  and  prowess  to  repel  invasions,  and  protect  them- 
selves from  the  assaults  of  their  enemies,  they  had  but  little  time 
to  devote  to  the  cultivation  of  learning — hence  it  not  only  lan- 
guished, but  the  little  that  had  been  previously  known  was 
nearly  lost. 

In  the  wretched  and  humiliating  condition  above-mentioned, 
the  Britons,  almost  driven  to  despair,  applied  for  succor  to  the 
Saxons,  a  bold  and  restless  people — a  swarm  from  the  great 
"northern  hive."  They  represented  themselves  as  almost  worn 
'out  by  hostile  invasions,  and  harrassed  by  the  continual  incur- 
sions of  their  enemies.  "We  are,"  said  they,  "possessed  of  a 
wide  extended  and  fertile  country;  this  we  yield  wholly  to  be 
at  thy  devotion  and  command.  Beneath  th6  wings  of  your  va- 
lor we  seek  for  safety,  and  shall  willingly  undergo  whatever  ser- 
vices you  may  hereafter  be  pleased  to  impose."  In  consequence 
of  this  invitation,  a  considerable  body  of  Saxons  arrived  in  Bri- 
tain under  the  command  of  two  brother  chiefs,  Hengist  and 
Horsa.  They  united  with  the  Britons  and  gained  a  complete 
victory  over  the  Picts  and  Scots,  and  being  highly  pleased  with 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  mildness  of  the  climate,  they 
persuaded  a  larger  body  of  their  countrymen  to  follow  them.  They 
succeeded,  without  much  difficulty,  in  establishing  themselves, 
and  from  friends  and  protectors  of  the  Britons,  they  became  their 
conquerors  and  oppressors,  and,  on  the  ruins  of  the  independ- 
ence of  those  they  came  to  succor,  they  established  the  seven 
kingdoms  of  the  Algo-Saxons,  called  the  Heptarchy.  The  divi- 
sion of  the  country  into  so  many  petty  monarchies,  whose  eon- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Dieting  interests,  or  motives  of  ambition,  occasioned  continual 
wars,  left  but  little  leisure  for  the  cultivation  of  learning  and 
the  successful  march  of  intellect.  The  conversion  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  to  Christianity  in  the  seventh  century,  had  a  considerable 
effect  upon  the  interests  of  learning;  by  embracing  Christianity, 
they  were  led  to  make  inquiries,  and  enter  into  speculations 
U-pon  the  various  subjects,  as  well  literary  and  scientific,  as  reli- 
gious: schools  were  founded  in  different  places,  one  of  which, 
that  of  Canterbury,  was  enriched  by  many  valuable  books 
brought  from  Rome.  The  union  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  Hep- 
tarchy under  Egbert,  formed  a  happy  era  in  the  history  of  the 
country;  united  under  one  monarch,  it  was  freed  from  those 
scenes  of  internal  war  which  had  long  disturbed  its  peace.  Eg- 
bert, early  in  life,  withdrew  from  Briton  into  France,  where  he 
applied  himself  to  study  with  so  much  diligence,  that  he  made 
rapid  progress  in  all  the  learning  then  known  in  the  court  of 
Charlemagne,  and  acquired  such  a  fund  of  useful  information, 
as  subsequently  enabled  him  to  wield  the  sceptre  with  so  much 
glory.  Egbert  encouraged  learning  and  protected  learned  men. 
so  far  as  he  could  consistently  with  the  spirit  of  the  times.  His 
influence,  however,  was  but  little,  notwithstanding  his  exalted 
station,  when  placed  in  competition  with  that  of  the  clergy, 
whose  interest  it  was  to  prevent  the  light  of  knowledge  from 
spreading  its  beams  too  widely  among  the  people. 

Alfred  succeeded  his  brother  Ethelred  A.  D.  871.  He  was 
scarcely  seated  on  the  throne  before  he  had  to  contend  with  the 
Danes,  a  formidable  enemy,  who,  in  the  reigns  of  his  predeces- 
sors, had  gained  a  footing  in  the  kingdom,  and  committed  great 
outrages.  It  was  reserved  for  Alfred  to  rid  the  country  of  these 
bold  invaders,  and  give  peace  to  his  people,  while  he  establish- 
ed his  throne  in  security.  Few  monarchs  are  entitled  to  higher 
commendations  than  Alfred,  as  well  on  account  of  his  military 
qualities,  and  his  capacity  for  government,  as  for  the  encourage- 
ment he  afforded  to  learning.  His  merits  as  a  general  are  evin- 
ced in  the  skill  with  which  he  encountered  the  warlike  Danes, 
led  on,  as  they  were,  by  skilful  and  experienced  leaders;  his 
capacity  for  government  is  evinced  in  the  judicious  laws  he 
enacted  for  the  security  of  the  lives  and  property  of  his  subjects; 
his  zeal  for  learning  is  manifested  in  the  measures  he  took 
for  the  instruction  of  th<?  people  in  all  useful  knowledge.  In 


^4  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

the  rnidst  of  the  cares  of  government,  during  a  troublesome 
reign,  he  devoted  eight  hours  every  day  to  study  and  devotion. 
By  his  diligence  he  acquired  considerable  knowledge  of  gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  philosophy,  history  and  mathematics;  he  is  said 
to  have  successfully  courted  the  muses,  and  was  acknowledged  to 
be  the  best  Saxon  poet  of  his  age.  To  improve  the  Saxon  tongue 
was  one  great  object  of  Alfred,  although  capable  of  writing  in 
Latin,  the  language  of  the  learned,  he  not  only  wrote  himself  in 
the  Saxon,  but  encouraged  it  in  others,  by  which  means  the  ben- 
efits of  knowledge  were  accessible  to  all.* 

Alfred  is  said  to  have  founded  the  university  of  Oxford,  and 
established  professorships  of  grammar,  rhetoric,  philosophy  and 
theology.     With  regard  to  the  foundation  of  this  university,  the 
annals  of  the  monastery  of  Winchester  says,  that  "in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  886,  in  the  second  year  of  St.  Grimbald's  coming  over 
to  England,!  the  university  of  Oxford  was  founded.     The  first 
regents  there,  and  readers  in  divinity,  were  St.  Neot,  an  abbot 
and  eminent   professor  of  theology,  and  St.  Grim  bald,  an  elo- 
quent and  most  excellent    interpreter  of  the  holy  scriptures. 
Grammar  and  rhetoric  were  taught  by  Asserius,  a  monk,  and  a 
man  of  extraordinary  learning.     Logic,  music  and  arithmetic, 
were  read  by  .John,  a  monk  of  St.  Davids.     Geometry  and  as- 
tronomy were  professed  by  John,  a  monk  and  colleague  of  St. 
Grimbald,a  man  of  sharp  wit  and  immense  knowledge.     These 
lectures  were  often  honored  with  the  presence  of  the  most  illus- 
I  rious  and  invincible   monarch  king  Alfred,  whose  memory  to 
every  judicious  taste  shall  be  sweeter  than  honey."     From  thi* 
account  it  would  appear,  that  Alfred  not  only  established  pro- 
fessorships in  all  the  branches  of  knowledge  then  known,  but  ap- 
pointed to  the  respective  chairs  men  competent  to  teach.     Be- 
sides the  university  of  Oxford,  he  established  schools  throughout 
his  kingdom,  and  enjoined  every  freeholder  to  send  his  children 
to  these  schools,  and  such  of  them  as   became  distinguished  for 
learning,  he  promoted  to  the  highest  offices,  thus  giving  the  most 
unequivocal   proofs    of  his   desire    to   disseminate   knowledge 
throughout  his  kingdom.     For  the  support  of  the  university 

*  Previous  to  the  invasion  of  the  Saxons,  the  language  of  the  Britons  was  the  Celtic. 
but  on  their  establishment,  the  Celtic  was  discontinued  and  the  Saxon  only  used. 

f  St.  GritnbaM  was  a  monk  of  Rheims  in  France,  and  being  a  man  of  some  learning 
he  was  invited  by  Alfred  to  assist  him  in  his  stndip- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

.uid  the  other  literary  institutions,  he  allotted  one  eighth  part  of 
his  whole  revenue.  In  the  incursions  of  the  Danes,  many  of  the 
monasteries  were  much  injured,  and  learning  sustained  a  heavy 
loss  in  the  destruction  of  the  libraries  belonging  to  them.  Al- 
fred repaired  the  monasteries  and  replenished  their  libraries, 
and  encouraged  the  multiplication  of  books  by  liberal  rewards 
to  those  whose  time  was  employed  in  copying.  The  reputation 
of  Alfred  as  an  author,  rests  upon  his  poetical  effusions,  and  his 
translation  into  the  Saxon  language,  of  Bede's  Ecclesiastical 

~*""N.    History,  and  Boethius'  Consolation  of  Philosophy. 

^Contemporary  with  Alfred,  and  the  most  learned  man  of  his 
age,  was  Joannes  Scotus,  whom  he  appointed  abbot  of  Atheling. 
Scotus  seeing  that  his  own  country  afforded  no  means  of  ac- 
quiring that  knowledge  after  which  he  thirsted,  is  supposed  to 
have  visited  Constantinople,  and  other  cities  of  the  eastern  em- 
pire, where  he  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language, 
and  was  made  acquainted  with  the  doctrines  of  the  philosophy 
then  taught.  His  attainments  were  so  remarkable  and  profound 
for  the  age,  that  he  acquired  the  appellation  of  Scotus  the  Wise. 
He  was  celebrated  as  a  metaphysician,  and  wrote  a  work  "On 
the  nature  of  things,"  in  which  he  taught,  that  God  is  all  things, 
and  that  all  things  are  God — that  after  the  resurrection,  nature 
itself  will  return  to  God — that  God  will  be  all  in  all,  and 
there  will  remain  nothing  but  God  alone."  These,  and  other 
opinions  of  Scotus,  on  religious  points,  were  not  considered  or- 
thodox, particularly  the  opinions  he  entertained  with  regard  to 
predestination  and  the  eucharist,  and  involved  him  in  disputes  with 
a  crowd  of  monks,  who  were  alike  incapable  of  upholding  their 
own  doctrines  by  force  of  reason  and  argument,  or  of  overturn- 
ing his.  He  translated  the  works  of  Dionysius,  the  Areopagite$ 
which  had  been  long  held  in  great  veneration  by  the  Greek 
christians,  and  which  were  sent  by  the  Greek  emperor  Michael, 
to  the  emperor  Louis  the  Mild.  The  translation  of  these  works 
being  made  without  consulting  the  pope,  gave  great  offence  to 
the  successor  of  St.  Peter,  Nicholas  I,  as  they  contained  many 

*  opinions  contrary  to  the  doctrines  of  the  church  of  Rome.  Ni- 
cholas, in  the  plenitude  of  papal  power,  addressed  an  angry  let- 
ter to  the  king  of  France,  (at  whose  request  the  translation  was 
made,  and  in  whose  kingdom  Scotus  then  resided,)  commanding 
him  to  send  the  offender  to  Rome.  "I  have  been  informed,"  say* 

34 


jgg  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

the  pope,  "that  one  John,  a  Scotchman  by  birth,  hath  latel* 
translated  into  Latin,  the  work  of  Dionysius,  the  Areopagite, 
concerning  the  divine  names  and  the  celestial  hierarchy,  which 
he  should  have  sent  me  for  my  approbation,  according  to  cus- 
tom. This  was  the  more  necessary,  because  the  said  John, 
though  a  man  of  great  learning,  is  reported  not  to  think  rightly 
in  some  things."  Charles  the  Bald,  then  king  of  France,  had 
too  great  an  affection  for  his  friend,  to  comply  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  pontiff,  but  Scotus  thought  it  most  advisable  to 
leave  Paris,  and  return  to  England,  where  he  ended  his  days. 

The  state  of  learning  in  the  following  century  was  more  de- 
plorable than  during  any  antecedent  or  subsequent  period.  "For 
its  barbarism  and  wickedness,  it  may  be  called  the  age  of  iron; 
for  its  -dill-ness  and  stupidity,  the  age  of  lead;  and  for  its  blind- 
ness and  ignorance,  the  age  of  darkness."  The  enlight- 
ened mind  that  dwells  with  enthusiasm  upon  the  present  exalted 
state  of  literature  in  the  Christian  world,  reverts  with  melancho- 
ly sensations  to  its  untoward  fate  in  this  century,  when  "Night's 
daughter,  Ignorance,  did  wrap  all  around  her."  As  we  before 
remarked,  the  advancement  of  learning  and  its  depression,  are 
intimately  connected  with  the  internal  condition  of  a  country, 
and  the  state  of  society.  It  is  a  "natural  produce  of  the  humaa 
mind,"  says  the  elegant  author  of  the  Essay  on  Civil  Society, 
"and  will  rise  spontaneously  wherever  we  are  happily  placed^' 
and,  we  may  add,  from  the  history  and  experience  of  ages,  it  wilJ 
cease  to  flourish  when  internal  wars  and  civil  commotions  invade 
the  peaceful  sanctuaries  of  private  life.  This  remark  is  strik- 
ingly illustrated  by  a  recurrence  to  the  period  which  elapsed 
from  the  death  of  Alfred  to  the  Norman  conquest.  Whilst  the 
powerful  hand  of  Alfred  swayed  the  sceptre,  and  his  vigorous 
mind  directed  the  energies  of  the  nation,  the  literary  founda- 
tions which  his  genius  planned,  and  his  munificence  supported, 
were  in  a  flourishing  condition.  They  opened  wide  their  por- 
tals to  all  who  sought  instruction,  and  desired  by  cultivating  the 
mind,  to  fit  it  for  those  intellectual  pleasures  nature  destined  it 
to  enjoyy  while  confined  to  its  earthly  tabernacle.  This  fair 
prospect,  however,  was  of  short  duration ;  the  wise  and  liberal 
policy  of  Alfred;  his  meritorious  and  unceasing  exertions  to  dif- 
fuse scientific  and  literary  knowledge  throughout  his  dominions* 
nearly  failed  of  their  object  on  his  demise.  His  successors  from. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  267 

various  causes  were  incapable  of  treading  in  his  footsteps,  and 
the  lamp  of  learning  which  his  genius  kindled,  and  which  had 
begun  to  extend  its  rays  beyond  the  academic  groves  of  Oxford, 
was  nearly  extinguished  in  those  disastrous  times  that  accompa- 
nied the  repeated  incursions  of  the  Danes.  England,  since  so 
distinguished  for  every  thing  great  in  literature,  science  and  art, 
sunk  again  into  intellectual  barbarism,  so  low  indeed,  that  many 
of  the  clergy  were  scarcely  able  to  read  the  Lord's  prayer  in 
Latin.  He  who  could  recite  the  usual  service  of  the  church, 
although  he  could  not  comprehend  one  half  of  what  he  read,  was 
regarded  as  one  gifted  with  superior  intelligence — a  very  pro- 
digy of  learning  and  talents. 

Among  those  who  were  called  learned  in  England,  in  this  dark 
and  barbarous  age,  was  Dunstan,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  bet- 
ter known  to  readers  of  English  history,  as  the  cruel  and  unrelen- 
ting persecutor  of  Elgiva,  the  wife  of  Edwy,  than  for  any  great 
merit  as  a  writer.  He  composed  a  treatise  on  "Occult  philoso- 
phy," a  subject  well  suited  to  the  genius  and  philosophy  of  the 
age.  He  is  said  by  the  monkish  historians  of  the  times,  to 
have  excelled  as  much  in  learning  as  he  did  in  piety;  "so  acute 
was  his  reason,  so  lively  his  imagination,  and  so  admirable  his 
elocution,  that  no  man  ever  conceived  things  with  greater  quick- 
ness, expressed  them  with  greater  elegance,  nor  pronounced 
them  with  greater  sweetness."  But  what  reliance  can  be  placed 
on  such  opinions,  when  we  are  gravely  told  by  William  of  Malms- 
bury,  in  general  a  respectable  historian,  that  in  the  days  of  St. 
Dfcnstan,  "there  were  no  such  things  as  fear,  discord,  oppression 
or  murder,  bat  that  all  men  lived  in  perfect  virtue  and  tranquilli- 
ty; and  that  all  those  felicities  flowed  from  the  blessed  St.  Dun- 
stan,  for  which,  as  well  as  his  miracles,  he  was  loaded  with  glo- 
ry." A  comparison  of  the  real  history  of  the  times,  with  this 
fanciful  description  of  unexampled  happiness,  will  present  a  me- 
lancholy contrast. 

This  deplorable  ignorance  was  not  confined  to  England ;  as 
dark  a  cloud  hung  over  the  nations  of  the  continent.  Even 
Rome,  the  seat  of  the  sovereign  pontiff,  where  genius,  learning 
and  talents  once  reigned  triumphant — where  once  were  heard 
the  eloquence  of  Cicero  and  the  melodious  strains  of  Virgil  and 
Horace,  was  so  enveloped  in  intellectual  darkness,  that  it  was 
declared  by  a  ^ynod  convened  at  Rheims,  that  "at  Rome  no  one 


2£g  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

had  as  much  learning  as  would  be  necessary  for  a  porter,"  and  a 
contemporary  writer  exclaims,  "O  miserable  Rome!  thou  that 
didst  formerly  hold  out  so  many  great  and  glorious  luminaries 
to  our  ancestors,  into  what  prodigious  darkness  art  thou  now 
fallen,  which  will  render  thee  infamous  to  all  succeeding  ages." 
This  point  cannot  be  better  illustrated,  than  by  bringing  to  view 
one  or  two  instances  of  the  utter  ignorance  that  prevailed,  even 
among  the  higher  clergy,  from  which  the  general  state  of  learn- 
ing may  be  inferred ;  for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  all  the 
learning  of  the  times,  was  almost  exclusively  confined  to  this  fa- 
vored and  privileged  class.  An  archbishop  of  Rheims,  one  of 
the  first  dignitaries  of  the  Gallican  church,  at  the  time  of  his 
consecration  to  the  archepiscopal  office,  was  called  upon,  as  was 
usual  upon  such  occasions,  to  read  in  Latin,  a  portion  of  the 
divine  precepts  of  his  master — of  that  sacred  gospel  it  was  his 
duty  to  teach  and  to  preach — but  he  was  so  deplorably  ignorant, 
as  to  be  unable  to  comprehend  the  meaning  of  the  plainest 
passages.  Another  bishop,  whose  head  had  long  been  decorated 
with  the  mitre,  was  unable  to  read  the  psalter  without  commit- 
ting such  blunders,  as  perverted  the  meaning  of  almost  every 
sentence.  And  yet  did  such  men  undertake  to  govern  empires, 
to  throw  down  and  build  up  thrones  at  pleasure — to  such  men 
was  committed  the  important  office  of  pointing  out  to  erring  and 
wayward  man,  the  road  to  heaven!  The  sciences  of  the  tri- 
vium,  or  grammar,  rhetoric  and  dialectics,  embraced  nearly  eve- 
ry thing  taught  in  the  schools  that  were  to  be  found  attached  to 
the  monasteries,  and  the  teacher's  skill  scarcely  went  beyond 
their  elements.  This  ignorance  was  accompanied  by  its  usual 
associates,  superstition  and  credulity.  No  story  appeared  too 
marvellous,  no  legend  too  absurd,  to  be  received  by  the  igno- 
rant multitude.  Devoted  to  their  spiritual  guides,  and  submitting 
their  understandings  to  their  direction,  the  nobility  and  inferior 
laity  were  easily  persuaded,  that  learning  was  useful  only  to  the 
clergy,  and  that  the  time  necessary  for  the  acquirement  of  the 
little  knowledge  they  possessed,  was  so  much  lost  from  the  no- 
bler employments  of  war  and  the  chase.  The  clergy  constitu- 
ted themselves  arbiters  and  judges  in  temporal  as  well  as  spi- 
ritual matters,  thus  confounding  temporal  and  spiritual  things, 
which  ought  ever  to  be  kept  separate  and  distinct.  Their  usual 
language  to  the  laity  was.  "redeem  your  souls  from  destruction 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

"  ,  V 

while  you  have  the  means  in  your  power;  offer  presents  and 
tythes  to  churchmen:  humbly  implore  the  patronage  of  the 
saints;  for  if  you  observe  these  things  you  may  come  with  secu- 
rity in  the  day  of  the  tribunal  of  the  eternal  judge,  and  say,  give 
us,  O  Lord,  for  we  have  given  unto  thee ;"  and  to  their  arrogant 
demands,  the  laity  yielded  a  ready  and  implicit  obedience. 

Dark  and  gloomy  as  was  the  state  of  learning  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, as  if  to  redeem  it  from  the  imputation  of  total  darkness, 
near  its  close  appeared  Gerbert,  archbishop  of  Rheims,  and  after- 
wards pope,  under  the  name  of  Sylvester  II.  Being  seized  with 
a  desire  of  learning,  he  took  advantage  of  every  opportunity  for 
gaining  information,  and  after  assiduous  application^  he  not  only 
acquired  himself  considerable  knowledge  in  mechanics,  geome- 
try, arithmetic  and  other  useful  sciences,  but  he  employed  every 
means  in  his  power  to  encourage  others  to  pursue  the  same  stu- 
dies. Gerbert  was  indebted  for  much  of  his  knowledge  to  the 
Arabians  of  Spain.  He  spent  some  time  in  attending  the  cele- 
brated schools  of  Cordova  and  Seville,  where,  under  Islaim 
teachers,  he  became  familiar  with  that  system  of  philosophy, 
which,  in  the  following  century,  was  introduced  into  Christian 
Europe,  and  became  the  foundation  on  which  the  superstruc- 
tures of  various  systems  were  subsequently  erected.  The  know- 
ledge of  geometry  possessed  by  Gerbert,  although  by  no  means 
extensive,  was  so  far  beyond  that  of  his  contemporaries,  that  they 
regarded  his  geometrical  figures,  as  magical  operations,  and  he 
was  himself  looked  upon  as  a  magician  and  a  disciple  of  satan. 
The  zeal  of  Gerbert,  united  to  the  influence  of  his  elevated  sta- 
tion as  sovereign  pontiff,  had  no  inconsiderable  effect  in  reviving 
that  taste  for  learning  which  appeared  in  the  following  century.* 

*Rank.  Hist,  of  France;  Gifford's  Hist,  of  France;  Millet's  Gen.  Hist.;  Mosh.  Ecc, 
Hist.;  Enf.  Hist,  of  Phil.;  Henry's  Hist,  of  Great  Brit.;  Humes' Hist,  of  Eng.;  Golds. 
Hist,  of  Eng. ;  Edin.  Ency. ;  Rees's  Cycl. :  Sismondi's  Hist.  Rep. ;  Ital.  Russ.  Mod.  E«. 


270  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

History  of  literature  from  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh,  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  thirteenth  century. 

THE  early  part  of  the  eleventh,  was  undistinguished  from 
the  preceding  century;  the  same  ignorance,  the  same  supersti- 
tion and  credulity,  and  the  same  blind  devotion  of  the  people  to 
their  spiritual  fathers,  whose  views  and  exertions  were  more  di- 
rected to  their  own  advancement,  than  the  extension  of  the  Re- 
deemer's kingdom  upon  earth.  This  influence  of  the  clergy,  to 
which  we  have  often  had  occasion  to  allude,  and  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  exercised,  we  find  difficult  to  reconcile  with  our 
present  modes  of  thinking  in  the  present  state  of  religion.  The 
clergy,  it  is  true,  at  the  present  day,  possess  a  certain  degree  of 
influence,  and  they  rightly  possess  it,  but  it  is  only  that  which 
results  from  superior  piety,  and  their  capability  of  instructing 
their  hearers  in  those  important  truths  which  relate  to  their  fu- 
ture hopes,  and  their  condition  in  the  world  beyond  the  grave. 
To  such  objects  the  exertions  of  the  primitive  fathers  of  the 
church,  the  immediate  successors  of  the  apostles,  were  directed; 
they  meddled  not  with  the  temporal  concerns  of  kingdoms. 
In  a  few  centuries  the  character  of  the  clergy  changed;  instead 
of  devoting  their  lives  to  the  service  of  the  church,  and  enlight- 
ening the  minds  of  their  flocks,  by  diffusing  the  divine  light  of 
the  gospel,  they  employed  their  influence  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
ercising a  control  over  political  events,  and  enslaving  the  minds 
of  both  prince  and  people — spiritual  yielded  to  temporal  con- 
cerns, and  they  became  more  ambitious  of  being  distinguished 
for  skill,  with  which  they  managed  the  affairs  of  empires,  than 
for  their  labors  in  the  "calling  wherewith  they  were  called."  Had 
the  clergy  been  differently  disposed,  and,  instead  of  keeping 
among  themselves  all  the  learning  of  the  times — had  they  open- 
ed  their  stores  of  mental  wealth,  and  scattered  it  abroad  among 
the  people,  although  their  influence  in  some  respects  might  have 
J>een  diminished,  they  would  have  raised  themselves  to  the  en- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

viable  rank  of  benefactors  of  the  human  race.  They  would  have 
erected  to  themselves  monuments  more  durable  than  brass  or 
marble,  in  that  intellectual  light  which  might  have  equalled  the 
proud  era  of  Augustan  literature.  But  regardless  of  future  fame, 
they  permitted  the  light  of  learning  to  be  hid  behind  dark  clouds 
for  nine  hundred  years,  and  it  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the 
eleventh  century  the  clouds  began  to  disperse,  and  that  light 
began  to  illuminate  the  world,  which  shone  in  full  splendor  in 
the  fifteenth  century. 

After  the  conquest  of  England,  by  William  of  Normandy,  A. 
D.  1066,  and  the  consequent  establishment  of  the  Normans  in 
the  conquered  territory,  learning  made  some  advances.  The 
tyrannical  oppression  which  William  exercised  over  his  new 
subjects,  with  regard  to  property,  was  most  severely  felt;  he 
fleeced  them  of  their  money  without  scruple,  and  he  depopula- 
ted whole  districts  to  make  hunting  grounds,  without  giving  the 
people  any  remuneration.  No  king  of  England  was  ever  so 
opulent,  or  so  able  to  support  the  splendor  and  magnificence  of 
a  court,  or  to  have  promoted  the  interests  of  learning;  but  Wil- 
liam, like  all  the  other  princes  of  the  age,  had  never  devoted 
much  time  to  the  pursuit  of  that  knowledge  to  be  derived  from 
books,  and  if  he  did  not  directly  encourage  it  by  his  liberality 
and  his  own  example,  he  did  nothing  to  suppress  it.  We,  there- 
fore, find,  that  under  his  rigorous  government,  the  state  of  learn- 
ing became  more  respectable  and  more  prosperous,  than  it  had 
been  since  the  days  of  Alfred. 

The  reign  of  William  is  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Ingulph? 
his  secretary,  who  received  his  education  at  the  university  of  Ox- 
ford, which  had  assumed  a  high  rank  among  seminaries  of  learn- 
ing. In  addition  to  the  sciences  usually  taught  at  this  period, 
which,  we  have  already  seen,  were  very  limited  in  number,  he 
applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle,  some 
books  of  which  had  escaped  the  fury  of  the  Danes.  He 
wrote  an  historical  work  which  gained  him  considerable  reputa- 
tion, and  is  still  regarded  as  good  authority  for  the  history  of  the 
times  in  which  it  treats.  With  the  knowledge  and  talents  he 
possessed,  had  he  devoted  his  life  to  study,  he  might  have  at- 
tained still  higher  distinction  in  the  republic  of  letters,  but  seized 
with  that  romantic  spirit  which  pervaded  all  ranks,  he  joined  a 
body  of  seven  thousand  pilgrims,  at  the  head  of  which  was  the 


2^2  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

archbishop  of  Mayertce,  who  designed  to  vist  the  holy  sepulchre, 
then  the  most  striking  object  of  Christian  devotion.  A  remnant 
of  this  band,  (among  whom  was  Ingulph,)  after  encountering 
many  trials  and  dangers,  and  after  being  robbed  and  otherwise 
maltreated  by  tribes  of  wandering  Arabs,  arrived  at  the  Holy 
City,  and,  having  made  a  solemn  procession  to  the  sepulchre, 
they  performed  those  sacred  rites  that  the  devout  and  weary 
pilgrim  felt  himself  bound  to  perform.  These  pilgrimages  arc 
the  more  remarkable  and  interesting  in  the  history  of  the  world, 
as  the  treatment  the  pilgrims  received  at  the  hands  of  the  fol- 
lowers of  the  koran,  gave  rise  to  those  celebrated  expeditions 
called  the  crusades,  which  caused  Europe  so  much  blood  and 
treasure,  without  gaining  one  important  end  in  a  political  or  re- 
ligious point  of  view.  The  archbishop  and  the  remnant  of  his 
pafrty,  after  encountering  innumerable  hardships,  returned  to 
Europe,  and  Ingulph  reached  his  native  land  with  only  twenty 
of  the  numerous  body  that  accompanied  him.  The  difficulties 
and  dangers  attending  this  long  and  hazardous  journey,  seemed 
but  to  inspire  new  zeal,  and  encourage  others  to  seek  the  se- 
pulchre of  their  crucified  savior.  Spencer,  in  his  Fairy  Queen, 
thus  describes  the  pilgrim: 

A  silly  man,  in  simple  weeds  t'oreworne, 
And  soil'd  with  dust  of  the  long  dried  way, 
His  «an<!alf  i  were  with  toilsome  t ravel  1  tome, 
«A.nd  face  all  tand  with  scorching  sunny  ray, 
\s  he  had  travell'd  many  a  somrner's  day 
Through  boyling  sands  of  Arable  and  Indc;, 
And  in  his  hand  a  Jacob's  staffe,  to  stay 
His  weary  limbs  upon;  and  eke  behind    t$  . 
His  scrip  did  hang,  in  which  his  needments  he  did  bind. 

Can.  6.— 35. 

Contemporary  with  Ingulph  was  Anselm,  who  was  born,  A.  D. 
1033,  in  Piedmont.  He  received  a  liberal  education  for  the 
times,  principally  at  Bee,  in  Normandy.  A.  D.  1093  he  was 
appointed  to  the  see  of  Canterbury  by  William  Rufus,  who,  in  a 
severe  illness,  consented  to  fill  that  see,  which  had  been  vacant 
for  five  years.  Anselm  was  scarcely  invested  with  the  insignia 
of  his  episcopal  dignity  before  he  quarrelled  with  the  king, 
which  resulted  in  his  expulsion  from  the  kingdom.  On  the 
death  of  William,  he  was  recalled  by  his  successor,  Henry  I,  and 
was" received  with  every  mark  of  res'pect  and  reinstated  in  his 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  273 

sou.  The  haughty  temper  of  the  primate,  and  his  devotion  to 
the  Roman  Pontiff,  very  soon  occasioned  a  quarrel  with  the 
king,  and  the  withdrawal  of  Anselm  from  the  kingdom.  This 
quarrel  being  settled,  he  returned  to  England  and  died  A.  D. 
1 109,  in  the  76th  year  of  his  age.  The  writings  of  Anselm  are 
altogether  theological  and  metaphysical,  and,  it  is  said,  that  he 
greatly  contributed  by  his  writings  to  the  dissemination  of  that 
system  of  philosophy  called  Scholastic,  which  afterwards  pre- 
vailed very  extensively.  In  some  of  his  works,  he  throws  much 
light  upon  the  darkness  in  which  the  science  of  logic  had  been 
long  involved,  and  removed  much  of  the  cloud,  that  hung  over 
the  important  sciences  of  metaphysics  and  natural  theology — 
sciences  at  that  time  but  little  understood. 

On  the  continent,  during  the  eleventh  century,  flourished  sev- 
eral learned  men,  among  whom  was  Fulbert,  Berengarius  and  a 
few  others.  Fulbert,  bishop  of  Chartres,  was  esteemed  one  of 
the  most  learned  men  of  the  age,  and  an  ornament  of  the  court 
of  Robert,  king  of  France,  the  son  of  Hugh  Capet,  the  founder 
of  the  Capetian  dynasty.  Fulbert  was  eminent  for  his  love  of 
letters,  and  displayed  great  zeal  for  the  general  education  of 
youth,  a  circumstance  so  rare  among  the  clergy  of  the  times,  that 
it  should  inspire  a  degree  of  veneration  for  his  character.  He 
was  a  devout  Christian,  and  famous  for  a  superstitious  and  idola- 
trous attachment  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  which,  notwithstanding 
his  otherwise  enlightened  mind,  led  him  into  ridiculous  ex- 
tremes. 

Berengarius,  called  also  Berenger  of  Cologne,  was  educated 
under  Fulbert  mentioned  above.  He  was  a  great  master  of  the 
dialectic  art,  and  acquired  much  celebrity  for  the  zeal  with 
which  he  opposed  the  absurd  doctrine  of  transubstantiation — 
that  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  bread  was  the 
identical  body,  and  the  wine  the  very  blood  of  Christ.  He  was 
summoned  to  attend  a  council  at  Mucelli,  to  answer  for  his  he- 
retical opinions,  but  instead  of  attending  in  person,  be  sent  two 
friends  to  appear  in  his  behalf.  He  was  condemned  by  the 
council,  and  his  friends  imprisoned.  This  did  not  shake  the 
firmness  of  his  soul,  or  hinder  him  from  propagating  his  opinions, 
which  gained  ground  rapidly.  He  was  again  summoned  before 
the  council  of  Tours,  where  his  doctrines  were  again  condemn- 
ed, and  he  himself  abjured  them  in  the  presence  of  the  council*. 

35 


274  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

Repenting  of  the  weakness  of  his  conduct,  he  again  taught  tlu 
same  doctrines,  was  again  condemned,  and  again  abjured  them. 
At  length,  tired  of  controversy,  he  retired  from  the  world,  and 
died  A.  D.  1088,  leaving  behind  him  a  character  for  extraordi- 
nary sanctity,  notwithstanding  the  heretical  opinions  he  had  been 
laboring  to  establish. 

In  the  twelfth  century,  the  scholastic  philosophy  began  to  be 
publicly  taught  in  the  schools;  before  this  time  it  had  many  dis- 
ciples, but  a  public  dissemination  of  its  doctrines  had  not  been 
ventured  upon.  The  doctrines  of  the  scholastics  were  those  of  the 
modern  peripatetic  school — a  mixture  of  the  Arabic  and  Christian. 
It  was  received  into  Europe  through  the  Arabic  schools  of  Spain, 
where  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  had  long  been  taught,  by 
means  of  translations  from  the  Greek  by  Arabian  scholars.  We 
have  already  adverted  to  the  state  of  learning  in  Spain  under 
the  Moorish  princes,  and  have  spoken  of  their  splendid  semina- 
ries-of  learning  at  Granada,  Cordova  and  Seville,  when  the  chris- 
tians  of  Europe  were  sunk  in  comparative  barbarism,  and  en- 
veloped in  the  dark  clouds  of  ignorance  and  superstition.  To- 
wards the  close  of  the  eleventh  and  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century,  a  new  spirit  being  awakened  in  Europe,  the  schools  of 
the  Arabians  in  Spain  became  the  resort  of  those  who  were  am- 
bitious of  literary  distinction — they  sought  among  the  disciples 
of  the  crescent,  for  instruction  in  literature  and  science,  and  re- 
turned deeply  cmbued  writh  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle,  which 
formed  one  of  the  chief  branches  of  Arabian  learning.  Many 
Arabian  books  on  this  favorite  subject,  were  translated  into  the 
various  languages  of  Europe,  and  were  afterwards  transcribed,, 
thus  affording  facilities  for  its  more  general  diffusion.  One  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  those  who  undertook  the  labor  of  trans- 
lating the  works  of  the  Arabian  writers,  was  Constantine,  a  monk 
of  Cassino,  who  had  spent  thirty  years  in  travelling  over  the. 
countries  of  the  east,  and  had  made  himself  master  of  seven  or 
eight  of  the  oriental  languages,  besides  Greek,  Latin  and  Italian. 
His  labors  in  the  retirement  of  the  cloisters  of  Cassino,  contri- 
buted greatly,  not  only  to  the  introduction  of  the  philosophy  of 
Aristotle,  but  to  excite  a  taste  for  literature,  and  promote  the 
revival  of  learning.  In  this,  his  exertions  were  aided  by  the 
labors  of  Mwley,  a  native  of  Norfolk  in  England,  who,  having 
studied  in  the  schools  of  Paris  and  Oxford,  and  learned  Arabi' 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

^tt  Toledo,  wrote  a  work  entitled,  "On  the  upper  and  lower  part 
of  the  world,'1  deeply  tinctured  with  the  philosophy  of  the  school 
of  which  we  are  speaking.  Another  English  work,  Adelard  of 
Bath,  studied  the  mathematical  and  philosophical  sciences  in 
Spain,  and  translated  from  the  Arabic  the  "Elements  of  Euclid," 
Their  successful  cultivation  of  learning,  their  support  of  scho- 
lastic philosophy,  and  the  consequent  reputation  they  acquired, 
induced  others  to  pursue  the  same  track,  thus  presenting  in  their 
own  example,  a  strong  incentive  to  emulation. 

About  this  time  were  going  forward  those  romantic  expedi- 
tions for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land,  called  the  crusades, 
which  agitated  Europe  and  Asia  for  two  hundred  years.  The 
Roman  pontiffs  from  the  time  of  Sylvester  II,  who  tilled  the  pon- 
tifical throne  at  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  had  been  forming 
plans  for  driving  the  followers  of  Mahomet  from  the  Holy  Land, 
and  for  the  extension  of  their  spiritual  power  o\er  Asia.  Gre- 
gory VII,  the  most  enterprising  and  ambitious  pontiff  that  ever 
filled  the  chair  of  St.  Peter,  had  determined  to  lead  an  expedi- 
tion in  person,  and  had  even  mustered  fifty  thousand  men,  but 
was  obliged  to  abandon  the  design  in  consequence  of  his  quar- 
rels with  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  Under  the  pontificate  of  Ur- 
ban II,  at  the  celebrated  council  of  Clermont,  the  great  design 
was  determined  upon,  and  A.  D.  1096,  eight  hundred  thousand 
men,  influenced  by  a  spirit  of  fanaticism,  set  forth  under  different 
commanders,  for  the  redemption  of  the  holy  sepulchre,  and  the 
destruction  of  those  who  were  considered  the  enemies  of  God, 
That  fierce  courage  and  intolerant  spirit,  and  that  religious  zeal, 
•which  were  the  strong  features  in  the  character  of  the  times, 
prosecuted  these  destructive  wars  for  two  hundred  years,  until 
at  length  the  crescent  triumphed  over  the  cross. 

Notwithstanding  religious  zeal,  military  ardor  and  a  desire  for 
distinction  in  arms,  were  the  predominating  motives  that  actu- 
ated the  crusaders,  there  were  yet  some  among  them  of  a  more 
mild  and  gentle  spirit,  who,  as  opportunity  served,  examined  the 
remains  of  antiquity  with  an  eye  of  observant  curiosity,  and  who 
brought  from  the  libraries  of  Constantinople,  some  valuable  re- 
mains of  Grecian  learning,  by  which  means  Greek  copies  of  the 
work  of  Aristotle  were  introduced  into  Europe,  and  studied,  in- 
stead of  translations  from  the  Arabic.  The  church,  however, 
•icwed  with  jealousy  and  apprehension,  the  spread  of  doctrine*, 

4* 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

which  it  regarded  as  encroaching  on  the  established  faith;  seve- 
ral of  its  teachers  were  not  only  subjected  to  ecclesiastical  cen- 
sure, but  their  writings  were  publicly  burned,  and  the  use  of 
the  works  of  Aristotle  were  prohibited  in  the  schools  by  the  sy- 
nod of  Paris,  and  by  a  bull  from  the  Vatican. 

These  prohibitory  decrees,  as  is  generally  the  case,  instead  of 
preventing  the  study  of  scholastic  philosophy,  had  the  direct 
tendency  of  increasing  the  desire  to  be  acquainted  with  its  doc- 
trines and  principles.     That  spirit  of  opposition,  which  appears 
to  be  one  of  the  principles  of  our  nature,  was  set  to  work,  and 
the  disciples  of  the  school  became  more  zealous  in  their  support 
of  it,  and  more  eager  to  disseminate  its  doctrines.       So  much  in- 
creased in  numbers,and  so  powerful  had  they  become,  that  the  or- 
thodox clergy  thought  it  necessary  to  prevent  their  opinions  from 
spreading  too  wide,  but,  to  preserve  their  own  influence,  to  favor, 
under  some  restrictions,    this   suspicious  philosophy.     The  dia- 
lectics, physics  and  metaphysics  of  Aristotle,  were  permitted  to 
be  taught  in  the  university  of  Paris,  and  A.  D.  1331,  Pope  Gre- 
gory IX.  permitted  them  to  be  taught,  after  they  had  been  ex- 
mined,  and  purged  from  what  were   considered   errors.     After 
this  period  the  church  of  Rome  began  to  consider  the  philosophy 
of  Aristotle  as  one  of  the  pillars  of  the  hierarchy,  and  in  the  year 
13GG,  pope  Urban  V.  appointed  several  members  of  the  sacred 
college,  to  settle  the  manner  in   which   his  writings  should  be 
studied  in  the  university  of  Paris,  and  in  the  year  1462,  Charles 
VII.  ordered  them  to  be  read  and  explained  in  that  university. 

One  of  the  most  distinguished  disciples  of  this  school  was 
William  dc  Champeaux^  archbishop  of  Paris.  Before  his  promo- 
tion to  the  see  of  Paris,  he  taught  philosophy  with  great  repu- 
tation in  the  university  of  Paris,  and  was  the  teacher  of  the  fa- 
mous Peter  Abelard,  better  known  at  the  present  day  as  the  lover 
of  Heloise,  than  as  a  teacher  of  philosophy.  Abelard,  speaking 
of  Champeaux,  calls  him  an  "eminent  and  able  preceptor." 

Abelard  was  born  A.  D.  1079,  and  received  his  first  instruc- 
tions from  Rosceline,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Nominalists,  one 
of  the  sects  into  which  the  philosophy  of  the  scholastics  was  di- 
vided. He  afterwards  studied  under  Champeaux,  with  whom  he 
often  entered  into  argument,  and  so  subtle  was  his  mode  of  rea- 
soning, that  he  often  confounded  his  master.  This  difference  of 
opinion  induced  Abelard  to  set  up  a  school  of  his  own,  in  the 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  277 

town  of  Melun,  about  ten  leagues  from  Paris,  where  he  soon  at- 
tracted a  crowd  of  followers;  Champeaux  did  every  thing  in  his 
power  to  prevent  the  erection  of  this  school,  and  after  it  was  estab- 
lished, he  threw  every  impediment  he  possibly  could  in  the  way  of 
its  prosperity.    In  consequence  of  ill  health,  caused  by  continued 
study  and  exertions  in  behalf  of  his  school,  Abelard  retired  to 
Bretagne,  his  native  country,  and  after  an  absence  of  (wo  years 
he  returned,  and  renewed  his  controversy  with  his  former  pre- 
ceptor with  such  ability,   that  he   gained  many  of  his  pupils. 
Abelard  afterwards  began  to  lecture  in  theology,  and  his  expla- 
nations of  the  scriptures  soon  raised  his  reputation  to  such  a 
height,  that  he  had  crowded  auditories,  and  gained  considerable 
profit.     In  the  midst  of  these  labors,  which  were   gaining  him 
both  reputation  and  money,  he  became  acquainted  with  Heloise, 
whose  education  he  was  employed  by  her  uncle  to  superintend. 
They  became  attached  to  each  other,  and  a  connection  ensued, 
which  proved   mutually  unfortunate,  and  resulted   in  Abelard 
giving  himself  up  to  a  monastic  life,  and  Heloise  taking  the  veil. 
After  time  had  rendered  his  misfortune  familiar  to  him,  he  was 
desirous  of  regaining  the   reputation  he  had  acquired,  of  the 
most  learned  man   of  his   age,  and  again  applied  himself  with 
renewed  zeal,  to  the  prosecution  of  those  studies  he  had  neglec- 
ted during  the  prevalence  of  his  ill-fated  passion  for  Heloise. 
In  consequence  of  the  doctrines  entertained  in  his  book  on  "The 
Mystery  of  the  Trinity,"  he  was  charged  with  heresy,  and  tried 
before  a  council  at  Soissons  A.  D.  1 121 ;  his  book  was  condemn- 
ed to  be  burned,  and  himself  ordered  to  retire  to  the  monaste- 
ry of  St.  Medard.     After  undergoing  several  other  persecutions, 
he  finally  found  refuge  in  the  priory  of  St.  Marcellus,  near  Cha- 
lons, where  he  died  in  the  sixty-third  year  of  his  age  A.  D.  1 142. 
He  was  buried  in  the  convent  of  the  Paraclete,  founded  by  He- 
loise.    Abelard  was  a  man  of  superior  talents  and  extensive  ac- 
quirements, when  the  state  of  learning  in  the  age  in  which  he 
lived  is  considered.     His  "Christian  Theology,"  and  some  of  his 
epistles  have  been  published.     He  is  said  to  have  written  many 
treatises  on  philosophy,  which  have  never  been  published. 

The  genius  and  talents  of  Abelard  having  called  forth  many 
admircrs,  and  his  literary  reputation  having  excited  a  spirit  of 
emulation,  and  induced  also  a  stronger  desire  of  knowledge, 
much  of  that  dark  cloud  which  had  so  long  hung  over  the  Intel- 


-278  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

lectual  world,  was  dispersed.  We  find  men  devoting  a  portioi* 
of  their  time  to  the  acquisition  of  useful  science  and  general 
literature,  instead  of  employing  themselves  exclusively  in  the 
discussion  of  abstruse  points  in  theology,  or  losing  themselves  in 
the  metaphysical  subtilties  of  a  corrupt  and  mongrel  system  of 
philosophy.  Following  in  the  track  of  their  preceptor,  many 
of  the  numerous  disciples  of  Abelard,  became  distinguished  in 
the  literary  history  of  the  times,  and  obtained  the  highest  digni- 
ties in  the  church.  To  mention  all  who  were  thus  distinguish- 
ed, arid  detail  their  peculiar  merits,  would  be  as  tedious  as  un- 
profitable. We  shall,  therefore,  only  notice  two  or  three,  who 
may  with  propriety  be  selected  from  the  mass. 

1'clcr  Lombard  was  born  in  Lombardy,  and  was  educated  at 
Paris.  He  was  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  archbishop  of  Paris 
A.  D.  1 159.  He  was  celebrated  for  a  theological  work,  entitled 
"The  Master  of  Sentences,''  which  was  a  collection  of  opinions 
and  sentences,  relative  to  the  various  branches  of  theology  that 
had  been  subjects  of  controversy,  extracted  from  the  doctors  of 
the  church,  and  many  commentaries,  were  written  upon  it. 
Lombard  died  A.  D.  1 164. 

Among  the  most  distinguished  men  of  his  age.  was  John  of  Sa- 
lisbury, who  received  the  rudiments  of  his  education  in  his  na- 
tive land.  Possessing  uncommon  industry,  and  a  mind  capable 
of  receiving  and  comprehending  whatever  was  presented  before 
it,  he  soon  acquired  a  considerable  share,  not  only  of  the  philo- 
sophical and  theological  learning  of  the  age,  but  of  general  lite 
rature,  including  a  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Hebrew,  language? 
at  that  time  but  little  cultivated,  and  of  course,  but  little  under- 
stood. Having  acquired  a  valuable  stock  of  useful  knowledge, 
and  knowing  how  to  improve  it  to  advantage,  he  determined  to 
visit  the  companions  of  his  early  studies,  in  order  that  they  might 
derive  some  benefit  from  his  instructions.  The  situation  in  which 
he  found  them,  with  regard  to  mental  improvement,  will  con- 
vey some  idea  of  what  was  the  general  state  of  knowledge.  1 1  ( 
says,  "I  found  them  the  same  men,  and  in  the  same  place;  nor 
had  they  advanced  a  single  step  towards  resolving  our  ancient 
questions,  nor  added  a  single  proposition,  however  small,  to  their 
stock  of  knowledge.'7  He  also  describes  some  of  the  philoso- 
phers of  his  time,  as  rendering  their  lectures,  or  discourses,  de- 
signedly obscure,  that  they  might  »havc  the  reputation  of  supe 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  279 

•nor  wisdom,  and  impose  upon  the  ignorance  and  credulity  ot 
those  who  were  unable  to  see  through  the  mask;  many  of  them, 
also,  in  consequence  of  their  superficial  knowledge,  frequently 
confounded  the  peripatetic  and  platonic  systems.  He  was  the 
firm  friend  and  supporter  of  Thomas  A.  Becket,  an  ambitious 
and  disorganizing  prelate,  who  caused  so  much  disturbance  in 
England,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II,  and  when  Becket  was  obliged 
to  fly  from  England  and  seek  refuge  on  the  continent,  John  ac- 
companied him.  As  a  writer,  he  was  distinguished  for  his  lively 
wit  and  flowing  eloquence — his  principal  works  are  his  "Meta- 
logicum,"  or  apology  for  grammar,  philosophy  and  the  logic  of 
Aristotle,  and  his  "Letters." 

In  the  thirteenth  century,  flourished  the  celebrated  Thomas 
Aquinas,  a  native  of  Italy.  He  made  himself  master  of  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  age,  and  having  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  gain- 
ed some  distinction  as  a  teacher,  he  was  made  a  doctor  of  divi- 
nity about  the  year  1256.  Although  Aquinas  is  celebrated  in 
the  history  of  those  times,  his  fame  appears  to  be  founded  rather 
upon  his  abilities  and  learning  as  a  theologian,  and  as  a  great 
champion  of  church,  than  any  extensive  knowledge  of  science. 
He  does  not  appear  to  deserve  the  praises  bestowed  upon  him 
by  his  admirers,  as  a  learned  man;  he  was  unacquainted  with 
general  literature — with  the  elegant  and  liberal  studies  that 
relieve  the  dryness  of  abstract  speculations  and  theological  dis- 
putations. He  was  also  unacquainted  with  the  Greek  language., 
?o  that  his  knowledge  of  the  ancient  philosophy  then  taught,  wa?- 
derived  through  the  medium  of  translations.  His  most  celebra- 
ted work  is  his  "Heads  of  Theology,"  still  referred  to,  by  the 
catholics  particularly,  to  support  some  doubtful  or  controverted 
point  in  theology.  He  died  A.  D.  1274,  at  the  monastery  of 
Fossa  Nova,in  Campania,  but  his  body  was  afterwards  removed  to 
Toulouse;  he  was  cannonized  by  pope  John  XXII,  and  many 
miracles  are  said  to  have  been  wrought  at  his  tomb. 

We  might  enumerate  many  others  of  the  same  class  of  wri- 
ters and  philosophers,  who  flourished  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
but  we  will  pass  on,  and  present  to  the  notice  of  our  readers  one 
of  the  luminaries  of  the  age,  Roger  Bacon,  whose  extensive 
knowledge  in  the  various  departments  of  learning  and  science, 
procured  him  the  title  of  "Wonderful  Doctor"  He  was  born  al 
^Chester,  in  England,  in  the  year  1214.  At  Oxford  he  studied 


:280 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


grammar,  rhetoric  and  logic,  and  afterwards  visited  Paris,  where 
he  attended  the  lectures  of  the  professors  or  doctors  of  the  uni- 
versity. At  Paris  he  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity, 
and  entered  into  the  religious  order  of  Grey  Friars,  that  he 
might  be  able  to  prosecute  his  studies  without  interruption. 
With  so  much  success  did  he  prosecute  his  inquiries  into  the 
mysteries  of  nature,  as  exhibited  in  the  natural  world,  and  so 
much  superior  was  his  knowledge  of  chemistry,  astronomy,  and 
other  useful  services,  to  those  by  whom  he  was  surrounded,  that 
some  of  his  brethren,  influenced  by  such  feelings  as  govern  little 
minds,  charged  him  with  practising  magical  arts,  and  holding 
communion  with  devils — a  charge  readily  believed  by  an  igno- 
rant and  superstitious  multitude.  This  charge  having  reached 
the  ears  of  the  pope,  Bacon  sent,  not  only  his  philosophical 
writings,  but  even  his  instruments  to  Rome,  in  order  that  his 
holiness  might  be  satisfied  on  so  important  a  point,  and  himself 
relieved  from  the  imputation  of  being  concerned  with  the  spirits 
of  darkness.  Although  he  this  time  escaped  the  machinations  of 
his  enemies,  and  the  punishment  of  his  fancied  crimes,  yet,  in 
the  year  1278,  he  was  seized  and  imprisoned,  and  Nicholas  II, 
prohibited  the  perusal  of  his  writings.  Such  was  the  fate  of  a 
man  who  was  the  ornament  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  He 
continued  in  confinement  ten  years,  and  having  regained  his 
liberty,  he  returned  to  Oxford,  where  he  died  in  the  78th  year 
of  his  age. 

Bacon  was  not  only  the  light  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  but 
modern  writers  are  indebted  to  him  for  many  useful  hints  and 
discoveries  in  science.  He  was  the  author  of  many  valuable 
works,  most  of  which  were  destroyed  during  the  wars  and  civil 
commotions  that  grew  out  of  the  reformation.  A  bare  recapit- 
ulation of  the  titles  of  his  various  works  would  show,  that  he 
went  far  beyond  his  contemporaries  in  learning  and  science. 
He  greatly  contributed  to  revive  and  extend  the  study  of  math- 
ematics, and  his  knowledge  of  chemistry  was  very  considerable; 
he  appears  also  to  have  employed  his  skill  in  attempts  to 
discover  the  philosopher's  stone,  so  long  the  object  of  alchemical 
research.  To  him  is  ascribed  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  an 
invention  which  has  so  completely  changed  the  operations  of 
war,  and  he  was  so  well  versed  in  astronomy,  that  the  correction 
of  the  calendar  made  by  Gregory  XIII  is  said  to  have  been,  sug- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

gested  by  him.  It  may  with  justice  be  said  that  from  his  cell 
"issued  the  first  gleams  of  that  unquenchable  flame,  which,  after 
the  lapse  of  ages,  was  destined  to  burst  forth  with  augmented 
splendor,  guiding  the  steps  of  the  inquisitive  in  the  paths  of 
discovery,  and  lighting  prostrate  nations  to  the  means  of  secur- 
ing the  inestimable  blessing  of  liberty  of  conscience,  and  the 
sacred  immunities  of  freeborn  men." 

In  the  eleventh  century  arose  that  singular  order  of  men,  (if 
they  may  be  so  distinguished,)  called  Troubadours,  whose  fame 
for  several  centuries  filled  the  courts  of  Princes.  They  first 
appeared  in  the  south  of  France,  at  the  court  of  the  Count  of 
Provence,  from  whence  they  spread  over  other  parts  of  Europe. 
The  name  of  Troubadour  is  derived  from  the  Italian  word  trovare 
to  find  or  invent,  because  they  were  the  inventors  of  that  species 
of  poetry  for  which  they  became  so  celebrated.  No  poets  of 
ancient  or  modern  times  were  ever  held  in  higher  esteem. 
Raimond  V.  count  of  Provence,  exempted  them  from  taxes,  and 
they  not  only  visited  the  courts  of  Princes  and  the  castles  of 
nobles,  where  they  were  received  with  every  mark  of  respect 
and  favor,  but  they  travelled  through  different  nations  without 
apprehension — there  was  a  sort  of  sacredness  attached  to  their 
character,  that  protected  them  from  insult  or  injury.  They 
wandered 


from  hall  to  hall, 


Baronial  court  or  royal;  cheer'd  with  gifts 
Munificent,  and  love,  and  ladies'  praise. 

The  ladies  were  particularly  ambitious  of  being  celebrated 
by  them:  and  they  would  rather  submit  to  be  teased  with  their 
importunities,  than  by  rejecting  their  addresses  incur  their 
hatred  or  displeasure.  The  troubadour  was  extravagant  in 
panegyric,  and  he  could  be  so  severe  in  satire,  that  it  was  dan- 
gerous to  affront  them,  unless  indeed  the  person  offering  the 
affront  was  proof  against  the  shafts  of  satire. 

Love  and  gallantry,  and  martial  deeds,  formed  the  chief  sub- 
jects of  the  compositions  of  the  troubadours,  and  as  soon  as  one 
found  himself  established  in  the  court  of  a  prince  or  noble,  he 
feigned  a  passion  for  his  patron's  'wife,  and  began  to  compose 
verses  in  her  praise.  In  these  effusions  they  indulged  in  the 
most  extravagant  comparisons,  but  they  generally  used  language 

36 


2g-2  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

pure,  delicate  and  tender.  The  poetry  of  the  troubadours  may 
be  divided  into  three  classes,  viz:  the  Chanzos,  which  celebrated 
love  and  gallantry;  the  Sirventes^  of  which  war,  or  satire  were  the 
main  subjects,  and  the  Tensons,  or  songs  in  dialogue  between 
two  speakers,  when  each  successively  recited  a  stanza.  The 
tenson  was  usually  recited  in  the  court  of  Love,  held  by  the  lady 
of  the  castle,  surrounded  by  the  youthful  beauties  of  her  house- 
hold. This  court  was  held  at  the  conclusion  of  a  tournament, 
and  sometimes  those  knights  who  had  contended  for  the  prize  of 
skill  and  valor  in  arms,  disputed  for  the  prize  of  minstrelsy.  One 
of  the  two,  proposed  the  subject  of  dispute,  which  was  answered 
by  the  other,  in  the  same  measure,  and  singing  the  same  air. 
Their  respective  claims  were  then  gravely  discussed  by  the 
ladies  who  constituted  the  court,  who  were  the  sole  judges  in 
such  matters,  and  the  judgment  was  frequently  given  in  verse: 
many  of  the  high  born  dames  of  the  times  being  celebrated  for 
their  skill  in  minstrelsy.  Some  of  the  effusions  of  these  female 
troubadours,  are  still  in  existence  and  display  a  genius  for  poctrv 
of  high  order.  The  following  translation  of  a  fragment  of  a  song 
by  Clara  d*  Andusa, is  no  unfavorable  specimen: 


Into  what  cruel  grief  and  deep  distress 
The  jealous  and  the  false  have  plung'd  my  heart, 
Depriving  it  by  every  treacherovs  art 

Of  all  its  hopes  of  joy  and  happiness: 

For  they  have  forc'd  thee  from  my  arms  to  fly 
Whom  far  above  this  life  1  prize ; 
And  they  have  hid  thee  from  my  loving  eyes. 

Alas !  with  grief,  and  ire,  and  rage  I  die. 

Yet  they,  who  blame  my  passionate  love  to  thee, 
Can  never  teach  my  heart  a  nobler  flame, 
A  sweeter  hope,  than  that  which  thrills  my  frame. 

A  love  so  full  of  joy  and  harmony. 

Nor  is  there  one — no,  not  my  deadliest  foe, 
Whom,  speaking  praise  of  thee,  T  do  not  lover 
Nor  one,  so  dear  to  me,  who  would  not  move 

My  wrath,  if  from  his  lips  dispraise  should  fiow- 

Fear  not,  fair  love,  my  heart  shall  never  fail 
In  its  fond  trust — fear  not  that  it  will  change 
Its  faith, and  to  another  loved  one  range; 

No !  though  a  hundred  tongues  that  heart  assail 

For  love,  who  has  my  heart  at  his  command, 
Decrees  it  shall  be  faithful  found  to  thee 
And  it  shall  be  so, — Oh,  had  I  been  free, 

Thou,  who  hast  all  my  heart,  hadst  had  my  bane! 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


283 


Among  the  early  Troubadours,  we  find  Richard,  Coeur  de 
"Lion,  king  of  England,  who  appears  to  have  been  renowned  in 
poetry,  as  well  as  in  arms.  It  is  known,  that  Richard  on  his 
return  from  the  Holy  Land,  after  having  vanquished  the  cele- 
brated Saladin,  and  performed  prodigies  of  valor,  was  ship- 
wrecked on  the  coast  of  Istria,  and,  in  endeavoring  to  reach  his 
native  land,  in  the  disguise  of  a  pilgrim,  was  discovered, 
and  thrown  into  prison  by  Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  whom  he 
had  offended  at  the  siege  of  Ptolemais.  During  his  confine- 
ment Richard  composed  several  songs,  which  have  been  pre- 
served. The  following  extract  from  one  of  them  will  give  some 
rdea  of  his  talents  as  a  poet: 

No  wretched  captive  of  his  prison  speaks, 

Unless  with  pain  and  bitterness  of  soul, 
Yet  consolation  from  the  mnse  he  seeks 

Whose  voice  alone  misfortune  can  control. 
Where  now  is  each  ally,  each  baron,  friend, 

Whose  face  I  ne'er  beheld  without  a  smile? 
Will  none,  his  sovereign  to  redeem,  expend 

The  smallest  .portion  of  his  treasures  vile? 

Though  none  may  blush,  that  near  two  tedious  years, 

Without  relief  i»y  bondage  has  endur'd. 
Yet  know,  my  English,  Norman,  Gascon  peers, 

Not  one  of  you  should  thus  remain  immur'd: 
The  meanest  subject  of  my  wide  domains, 

Had  I  been  free, a  ransom  should  have  found; 
I  mean  not  to  reproach  you  with  my  chains, 

Yet  still  I  wear  them  on  a  foreign  ground! 

He  thus  alludes  to  the' conduct  of  Philip,  king  of  France,  who 
taking  advantage  of  his  absence  had  declared  war  against  him; 

But  small  is  my  surprise,  though  great  my  grief, 

To  find,  in  spite  of  all  his  solemn  vows, 
My  lands  are  ravaged  by  the  Gallic  chief, 

While  none  my  cause  has  courage  to  espouse. 
Though  lofty  towers  obscure  the  cheerful  day, 

Yet,  through  the  dungeon's  melancholy  gloom, 
Kind  hope,  in  gentle  whispers,  seems  to  say, 

"Perpetual  thraldom  is  not  yet  thy  doom." 

Ill  the  twelfth  century,  flourished  Arnaud  de  Marveil,  a  distin- 
guished Troubadour.  He  was  of  humble  rank  in  life,  but  his 
talents  procured  him  powerful  friends,  and  the  protection  of  the 
viscount  of  Beziers,  in  whose  territory  he  was  born.  He  ha» 
left  many  poems,  some  of  which  contain  four  hundred  verses* 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

There  is  a  sweetness  of  expression  in  the  following  lines,  that 
cannot  but  charm  the  reader;  much  is  due,  however,  to  the  ge- 
nius of  the  translator: 

Oh!  how  sweet  the  breeze  of  April, 

Breathing-  soft  as  May  draws  near! 
While,  through  nights  of  tranquil  beauty 

Songs  of  gladness  meet  the  ear; 
Every  bird  his  well  known  language   ' 

Uttering  in  the  morning's  pride, 
Revelling  in  joy  and  gladness 

By  his  happy  partner's  side. 

When  around  me,  all  is  smiling, 

When  to  life  the  young  birds  spring, 
Thoughts  of  love,  I  cannot  hinder, 

Come,  my  heart  inspiriting — 
Nature,  habit,  both  incline  me 

In  such  joy  to  bear  my  part: 
With  such  sounds  of  bliss  around  me 

Who  could  *veara  saddeifd  heart? 

Fairer  than  the  far-famed  Helen, 

Lovelier  than  the  flowrets  gay, 
Snow-white  teeth,  and  lips  truth-telling. 

Heart  as  open  as  the  day ; 
Golden  hair,  and  fresh  bright  roses — 

Heaven,  who  form'd  a  thing  so  fair, 
Knows  that  never  yet  another 

Lived,  who  can  with  her  compare. 

Pierre  Vidal^  of  Thoulouse,  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
Troubadours  of  his  age;  he  flourished  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth 
and  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  poet,  which  producing  inordinate  vanity,  led  him 
into  the  most  extravagant  and  ridiculous  conduct.  Inflated  be- 
yond measure  by  the  praises  bestowed  upon  him,  he  seems  to 
have  thought  that  every  species  of  extravagance  ought  to  be  to- 
lerated in  him.  The  collection  of  his  poems  contains  more  than 
sixty  pieces,  some  of  them  of  considerable  length.  He  enter- 
tained a  high  opinion  of  his  profession,  regarding  the  Trouba- 
dours as  the  instructers  of  nations,  and  poetry  as  the  storehouse 
of  universal  philosophy.  An  anecdote  is  related  of  him,  which 
evinces  something  of  the  madman.  On  his  return  from  the  is- 
land of  Cyprus,  whither  he  had  accompanied  the  crusaders,  he 
fell  in  love  with  a  lady  by  the  name  of  Wolf,  and  dressing  him- 
self in  a  wolfskin,  submitted  to  the  danger  of  being  hunted  for 
her  -ake.  In  this  garb  he  was  pursued  by  the  dogs  to  the  moun 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  285 

tains,  and  was  with  difficulty  relieved  by  the  hunters,  from  his 
perilous  situation.  He  died  A.  D.  1329,  on  his  return  from  the 
Levant. 

Besides  those  above-mentioned,  there  were  a  multitude  of 
other  Troubadours,  of  about  equal  merit,  who  thronged  the 
courts  of  princes,  and  sought  the  favor  and  protection  of  the 
great.  "Their  language  was  almost  the  same,  and  seems  only 
to  vary,  according  to  the  greater  or  less  negligence  of  the  copy- 
ists; or,  perhaps,  in  consequence  of  the  pretensions  of  the  later 
poets,  who,  to  gain  the  reputation  of  employing  singular  and  dif- 
ficult rhymes,  corrupted  their  language  by  augmenting  its  ob- 
scurity and  irregularities.  We  find  the  same  gallantry  express- 
ed in  the  same  hyperbolical  terms;  the  same  tenderness,  pro- 
ceeding from  the  same  ingenious  conceits  of  the  brain,  rather 
t  than  from  the  real  feeling  of  the  heart;  the  same  love  songs, 
presenting  the  portrait  of  a  beauty  like  all  other  beauties,  with 
the  same  exaggerations  of  her  merit,  her  birth  and  her  charac- 
ter; the  same  tears,  the  same  submission,  the  same  praises,  each 
undistinguishable  from  the  other,  and  all  of  them  equally  tedi- 
ous." 

After  the  thirteenth  century  the  Troubadours  were  scarcely 
heard,  and  on  the  revival  of  letters,  they  gave  place  to  poets  of 
another  character.  Their  decay  is  attributed  to  the  degraded 
condition  into  which  the  Jongleurs,  who  were  the  reciters  of  their 
verses,  had  fallen.  These  Jongleurs  led  a  wandering  life,  and 
accompanied  their  recitations  of  the  songs  of  the  Troubadours, 
with  all  sorts  of  tricks,  calculated  to  amuse  the  crowd.  They 
used  to  take  their  stations  at  the  cross  roads,  clothed  in  gro- 
tesque habits,  and  drawing  together  a  motley  assemblage,  by 
the  most  extravagant  actions,  prepared  their  audience  for  the 
verses  they  recited.  The  Troubadours,  who  had  heretofore 
occupied  so  exalted  a  station,  were  at  length,  confounded  with 
the  Jongleurs,  and  the  most  distinguished  amongst  them,  when 
they  presented  themselves  at  the  court  of  a  prince  or  baron, 
were  introduced  under  that  name.  The  profession  was  thus 
degraded  and  reduced,  to  that  of  mere  ballad  singers  and  moun- 
tebanks, and  that  genius  which  might  have  given  effect  to  the 
loftiest  inspiration  of  the  muse,  was  directed  into  other,  but  per- 
haps, more  useful  channels. 

The  TVowiWes  are  principally  known  as  the  composers  and 


236  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

reciters  of  tales  and  romances.  These  romances  were  imbued 
with  all  the  spirit  of  chivalry  which  burned  with  so  much  ardor 
at  this  period,  and  gave  that  peculiar  cast  of  character  which 
distinguishes  the  age,  and  which  contributed  to  the  subsequent 
refinement  of  manners.  The  romantic  nature  of  the  institutions 
of  chivalry,  gave  full  scope  to  the  ingenuity  of  the  poet,  while 
the  valiant  exploits  of  courteous  and  gallant  knights,  in  their  con- 
tests with  the  Moors  of  Spain,  and  the  Saracens  of  the  east,  fur- 
nished an  inexhaustible  fund  for  the  exercise  of  the  imagination. 
The  true  and  courteous  knight  was  a  character  held  in  universal 
esteem ;  by  the  statutes  of  chivalry,  the  love  of  God  was  the  first 
virtue,  and  devotion  to  the  fair  the  second.  The  true  devotion 
of  a  knight  was  delicate  and  refined.  He  did  not  expect  the 
favor  of  his  mistress  until  he  had  proved  himself  worthy  of  her 
by  deeds  of  arms — he  fought  to  gain  her  smiles,  and  when  he 
was  about  to  attack  his  enemy,  he  first  implored  the  help  of 
God,  and  then  invoked  the  name  of  his  mistress.  The  object  of 
his  passion  reigned  with  absolute  dominion;  in  the  antiquated 
language  of  Gower: 

Whatthynge  she  bid  me  do,  I  do, 
And  where  she  bid  me  go,  I  go, 
And  when  she  likes  to  call,  I  come; 
I  serve,  I  bow,  I  look,  I  lowte, 
My  eye  followeth  her  about. 
What  so  she  will,  so  will  I; 
When  she  would  sit,  I  kneel  by, 
And  when  she  stands  then  will  Island, 
And  when  she  taketh  her  work  in  hand 
Of  wevying  or  of  embroiderie, 
Then  can  I  but  muse  and  prie, 
Upon  her  fingers  long  and  small. 

The  romances  of  chivalry  may  be  divided  into  three  classes •, 
the  first  celebrated  the  exploits  of  king  Arthur,  and  the  knights 
of  the  round  table,  who  were  renowned  for  their  noble  daring. 
The  chivalric  deeds  of  Arthur  and  his  knights,  were  the  subjects 
of  numerous  romances.  The  second  class  is  that,  wherein  the 
achievements  of  Charlemagne  and  his  paladins,  were  celebra- 
ted. The  gallant  exploits  of  his  knights,  and  the  splendid  vic- 
tories of  Charlemagne,  furnished  ample  materials,  and  full  scope 
for  the  exercise  of  genius,  and  the  stretch  of  fancy.  The  third 
class  is  that  founded  upon  the  adventures  of  a  celebrated  knight. 
Amadis  of  Gaul.  The  first  romance  under  this  title  was  written 


, 

HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  337 

by  Vasco  Lobiera,  a  Portuguese,  who  lived  in  tbe  thirteenth 
century.  This  work  became  so  celebrated,  and  had  so  many 
imitators,  that  this  class  was  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the 
"Amadises."  This  fondness  for  romance  by  feeding  the  flame, 
kept  alive  the  spirit  of  chivalry,  which  animated  the  heroes  of 
the  crusades,  and  no  doubt  inspired  many  a  deed  of  valor.  The 
heroes  of  the  crusades,  whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  justice 
of  their  cause,  had  ever  present  to  their  view,  the  deeds  of  an 
Arthur,  a  Charlemagne,  an  Amadis,  an  Orlando,  or  a  Rinaldo, 
and  their  great  ambition  was  to  be  equally  renowned. 

The  Trouveres  did  not  confine  themselves  to  romances;  they 
indulged  in  compositions  of  songs  and  odes,  and  tales  in  rhyme 
called  fabliaux.  Their  fabliaux  were  pleasant  tales,  suited  to 
the  taste  of  the  times,  abounding  in  wit,  although  sometimes  of 
•not  the  most  refined  and  delicate  character.  These  tales,  al- 
though composed  in  rhyme,  bore  some  resemblance,  at  least  in 
their  general  features,  to  the  tales  of  Boccacio,  so  celebrated  in 
an  after  age.  Some  of  them  excited  much  interest  at  the  time,  and 
have  formed  the  ground  work  of  many  modern  dramas.  The  odes 
of  the  Trouveres  are  not  remarkable  for  their  excellence.  The 
most  celebrated  lyric  poet  amongst  them  is  Thibaud  III,  count 
of  Champagne,  who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  His  odes  seem  to  have  been  indebted  for  their 
celebrity  as  much  to  the  princely  dignity  of  their  author,  as  their 
intrinsic  merit. 

During  the  period  under  review  was  introduced  that  species 
of  drama  distinguished  by  the  names  of  sacred  comedy,  myste- 
ries and  moralities.  These  dramas  were  intended  to  represent  the 
great  events  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  characters  were  intro- 
duced,and  circumstances  from  the  sacred  scriptures  represented, 
the  very  mention  of  which  is  sufficient  to  shock  the  sensibility 
of  those  who  possess  a  proper  veneration  for  sacred  things.  The 
representation  took  place  in  the  church  itself,  in  the  very  tem- 
ple of  the  living  God,  and  the  principal  actors  were  those  who 
called  themselves  his  ministers.  These  dramas  were  too  long 
to  be  represented  without  interruption;  they  were  therefore 
continued  from  day  to  day.  In  one,  entitled  the  "Mystery  of 
the  Passion,"  a  great  number  of  characters  are  introduced, 
nmong  whom  are  the  three  persons  of  the  trinity,  six  angels,  tho 


288 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


twelve  apostles  and  six  devils.     The  foil  owing  extract,  in  which 
St.  John  is  introduced,  will  afford  an  idea  of  their  character: 


Abyas.    Though  fallen  be  man's  sinful  line, 
Holy  prophets!  it  is  writ, 
Christ  shall  come  to  ransom  it, 
And  by  doctrine  and  by  sign 
Bring  them  to  his  grace  divine. 
Wherefore,  seeing  now  the  force 
Of  thy  high  deeds,  thy  grave  discourse, 
And  virtues  shown  of  great  esteem 
That  thou  art  he  we  surely  mean. 

St.  John.     I  am  not  Messiah !— No ! 
At  the  feet  of  Christ  I  bow. 

Elyachim.     Why,  then,  wanderest  thou 
Naked,  in  this  wilderness? 
Say  !  what  faith  dost  thou  possess? 
And  to  whom  thy  service  paid? 

Bannanyas.    Thou  assemblest,  it  is  said . 
In  these  lonely  woods,  a  crowd 
To  hear  thy  voice  proclaiming  loud 
Like  that  of  our  most  holy  men. 
Art  thou  a  king  in  Israel, then? 
Knowest  thou  the  laws  and  prophecies .' 
What  art  thou?  say! 

Nathan.    Thou  dost  advise 
Messiah  is  come  down  below. 
Ha-t  -uen  him?  say,  how  dost  thou  know. 
Or  art  thou  he? 

Saint  John.     I  answer  no ! 

JVac/ior.     Who  art  thou?  art  Elias  then? 
Perhaps  Elias? 

Saint  John.    No  !— 

Bannanyas.     Again ! 
Who  art  thou?  what  thy  name?  express! 
For  never  surely  shall  we  guess. 
Thou  art  the  prophet. 

Saint  John.    I  am  not. 

Elyachim.     Who  and  what  art  thou?  tell  us  what 
That  true  answer  we  may  bear 
To  our  lords,  who  sent  us  here 
To  learn  thy  name  and  mission. 

Saint  John. Ego 

Vox  clamantis  in  deserto. 

A  voice,  a  solitary  cry 

In  the  desert  paths  am  I ! 

Smooth  the  paths,  and  make  them  meet , 

For  the  great  Redeemer's  feet, 

Him,  who  brought  by  our  misdoing, 

Comes  for  this  foul  world's  renewing. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

The  baptism  of  Christ  is  thus  described:  "Jesus  enters  the 
waters  of  Jordan,  all  naked,  and  Saint  John  takes  some  of  the 
water  in  his  hand  and  throws  it  on  the  head  of  Jesus,  saying, 

Sir,  you  now  baptised  are, 
As  it  suits  my  simple  skill, 


, 


Not  the  lofty  rank  you  fill; 


Unmeet  for  such  great  service  I; 

Yet  my  God,  so  debonair 

All  that 's  wanting  will  supply." 


of  the  scenes  between  Lucifer  and  his  kindred  spirits  is 
jqually  curious. 

Berith.    Who  he  is  I  cannot  tell — 
This  Jesus;— but  I  know  full  well 
That  in  all  the  worlds  that  be 
There  is  not  such  a  one  as  he. 
Who  it  is  that  gave  him  birth 
I  know  not,  nor  from  whence  on  earth 
He  came,  or  what  great  devil  taught  him, 
But  in  no  evil  have  I  caught  him ; 
Nor  know  I  any  vice  he  hath. 

Satan.    Haro !  but  you  may  make  me  wroth, 
When  such  dismal  knews  I  hear. 

Berith.    Wherefore  so? 

Satan.    Because  I  fear 

He  will  make  my  kingdom  less. 
Leave  him  in  the  wilderness, 
And  let  us  return  to  hell 
To  Lucifer  our  tale  to  tell, 
And  to  ask  his  sound  advice. 

Berith.    The  imps  are  ready  in  a  trice ; 
Better  escort  cannot  be. 

Lucifer.    Is  it  Satan  that  I  see, 
And  Berith,  coming  in  a  passion? 

Astaroth.     Master  let  me  lay  the  lash  on, 
Here 's  the  thing  to  do  the  deed. 

Lucifer.    Please  to  moderate  your  speed, 
To  lash  behind  and  lash  before  ye, 
Ere  you  hear  them  tell  their  story 
Whether  shame  they  bring,  or  glory. 

These  comedies,  although  occupying  from  three  to  forty  days 
in  their  representation,  were  highly  esteemed,  and  attracted 
crowds  of  admiring  auditors.  The  success  which  attended  the 
representation  of  the  "Mystery  of  the  Passion,"  induced  other 
writers  to  attempt  the  same  style  of  composition,  and  in  a  sjiort 
time,  almost  every  incident  of  the  life  of  Christ  was  represented 
upon  the  stage,  and,  in  order  to  give  proper  effect  to  the  res* 

37 


'296 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


pective  scenes,  the  stage  was  divided  into  three  parts,  the  first 
representing  Heaven,  the  second  Earth,  and  the  third  Hell.  IR 
the  decoration  of  the  stage  they  employed  all  their  skill  and 
ingenuity.  Heaven  was  represented  with  all  the  glory  and 
splendor  the  imagination  could  attach  to  it,  as  a  place  of  eternal 
joy  and  happiness,  whilst  Hell  was  represented  in  all  its  horrors. 
Representations  of  this  sort,  were  calculated  to  produce  a  won- 
derful effect  upon  the  feelings  of  an  ignorant  and  superstitious 
multitude,  and  if  they  did  not  increase  their  veneration  for  the 
Christian  religion  and  its  sacred  mysteries,  they,  perhaps,  excited 
their  hopes,  and  alarmed  their  fears,  and  produced  some  amend- 
ment. 

We  have,  in  this  chapter,  presented  a  rapid  sketch  of  the 
£tate  of  literature  from  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh,  to  the 
thirteenth  century;  and  although  this  period  produced  but  few 
writers  whose  works  have  been  preserved,  or  are  worthy  of  pre- 
servation, except  as  objects  of  curiosity,  yet,  we  here  discover 
the  dawning  of  that  light  which  broke  forth  in  the  following 
century,  and  after  being  for  a  short  time  obscured,  again  ap- 
peared with  renovated  splendor  in  the  fifteenth  century.* 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

History  of  literature  from  t)ie  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cew/w>v/,  to 
the  revival  of  letters  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

THE  learning  and  indefatigable  exertions  of  Bacon  and 
others,  whom  we  have  already  mentioned,  in  the  pursuit  of 
knowledge,  discovered  new  sources  of  information,  and  laid 
open  new  fields  for  the  lovers  of  science  and  philosophy  to  ex- 
plore, and  the  admirers  of  elegant  literature  to  wander  through. 
They  were  followed  by  several  learned  men,  who  were  distin- 

*  Henry's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Brit;  Enfield's  Hist,  of  Phil.;  Hughes'  Life  of  Abelard;  Spen- 
cer's Fairy  Queen;  Mills' Hist,  of  Chiv.;  Mills' Hist,  of  the  Crusades;  Sismondi's  Lit. 
of  the  South  of  Eur.;  La  Harpe  Cours  de  Lit.;  Sismondi's  Hist.  Rep.  ItaJ.;  Beattie'« 
"Es'say  on  Fab, and  Rom.:  Hoole's  Aricstb. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  2gj 

guished  by  peculiar  appellations,  expressive  of  their  particular 
attainments,  or  qualities  of  mind ;  thus  John  Dun  Scotus  was  cal- 
led the  most  subtle  doctor,  on  account  of  his  acuteness  and  subtilty 
in  controversy.  .• William  of  Clermont,  from  the  resolution  and 
perseverance  with  which  he  pursued  the  study  of  the  philosophy 
of  the  times,  was  called  the  resolute  doctor^  and  Walter  Burley,  one 
ef  the  preceptors  of  Edward  III,  wrote  with  a  perspicuity  so 
much  superior  to  any  of  his  contemporaries,  that  he  was  called 
the  perspicuous  doctor.  Of  these,  and  some  others  of  the  age,  we 
will  give  a  brief  sketch. 

Contemporary  with  Roger  Bacon,  was  Michael  Scot,  a  native 
of  Scotland.  He  received  the  rudiments  of  his  education  in  his 
native  land,  and  afterwards  studied  at  Oxford.  He  subse- 
quently visited  Paris  where  he  obtained  the  highest  academical 
honors.  He  became  so  celebrated  for  learning,  that  he  was  in- 
vited to  the  court  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II,  who  employed 
him  to  make  Latin  translations  of  the  works  of  Aristotle  and 
ether  philosophers  of  Greece.  For  this  task  he  was  extremely 
well  qualified,  because  of  his  familiarity  with  the  philosophy  of 
the  Greeks,  particularly  with  that  of  Aristotle,  and  his  know- 
ledge of  the  Greek  and  Arabic  languages.  At  this  time  the 
study  of  astrology  and  alchemy  engaged  the  atttention  of  the 
most  learned  men,  and  Scot  not  only  employed  no  inconsidera- 
ble portion  of  his  time,  in  these  vain  and  unprofitable  pursuits, 
but  wrote  a  book  on  the  nature  of  the  sun  and  moon,  which,  in  the 
language  of  alchymists,  signify  gold  and  silver.  Scot  is  said  by 
Mackenzie  in  his  "Lives  of  the  Scots  writers,"  to  have  been  "one 
of  the  greatest  philosophers,  mathematicians,  physicians  and 
linguists  of  the  age,  and,  had  he  not  been  too  much  addicted  to 
the  vain  studies  of  judicial  astrology,  alchymy,  physiognomy  and 
ehiromancy,  he  would  have  deserved  better  of  the  republic  of 
letters.  His  too  great  curiosity  in  these  matters  made  the  vul- 
gar look  upon  him  as  a  magician;  though  none  speaks  or  writes 
more  respectfully  of  God  and  religion  than  he  does."  Scot  re- 
turned to  Britain  about  the  year  1250,  and  died  A.  D.  1290. 

John  Dun  Scotus  was  born  about  A.  D.  1 265,  but  the  place  of 
his  birth  is  uncertain;  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland,  have  each 
contended  for  the  honor.  He  entered,  when  very  young,  a  mo1- 
jiastery  of  the  Franciscans  at  Newcastle.  The  brotherhood  dis- 
covering a  remarkable  quickness  of  genius  and  ^superiority  of 


292 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 


intellect,  sent  him  to  Oxford  to  prosecute  the  studies  then  taught 
in  that  seat  of  science.  He  soon  distinguished  himself  among 
his  fellow  students,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  he  made  him- 
self acquainted  with  the  various  subjects  of  his  studies.  So 
successful  was  he  in  the  acquirement  of  knowledge,  that  A.  D. 
1301,  he  was  promoted  to  the  distinction  of  theological  profes- 
sor in  the  university.  For  this  station  he  appears  to  have  been 
well  suited,  and  his  lectures  attracted  immense  crowds.  In  A. 
D.  1 304,  he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  defended  the  immacu- 
late conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  which  was  impugned  by  the 
divines  of  that  city,  with  such  acuteness  of  reasoning  and  strength 
of  argument,  that  the  university  of  Paris  bestowed  on  him  the 
title  of  the  subtle  doctor.  Scotus  was  at  first  a  follower  in  theology 
of  Thomas  Aquinas,  but  differing  from  his  master  concerning  the 
efficacy  of  divine  grace,  he  formed  a  distinct  sect,  known  by  the 
name  of  Scotists.  It  is  said  of  him,  that  "he  described  the  divine 
nature,  as  if  he  had  seen  God;  the  attributes  of  celestial  spirits, 
as  if  he  had  been  an  angel;  the  felicities  of  a  future  state,  as  if 
he  had  enjoyed  them;  and  the  ways  of  Providence,  as  if  he  had 
penetrated  into  all  its  secrets."  Scotus  died  in  the  44th  year  of 
his  age.  His  works,  which  were  published  in  twelve  folio  vo- 
lumes, are  now  regarded  as  mere  objects  of  curiosity — as  speci- 
mens of  the  literature  and  philosophy  of  the  age  in  which  he 
lived. 

William  Occam,  another  learned  man  of  the  age,  was  one  of 
the  disciples  of  Scotus^  and  the  founder  of  a  sect  called  Occamisls. 
He  was  born  A.  D.  1 280,  and  first  prosecuted  his  studies  at 
Oxford,  and  afterwards  at  Paris,  as  appears  to  have  been  the 
custom  of  the  day.  Although  one  of  the  disciples  of  Scotus,  he 
did  not  yield  implicit  faith  to  all  his  doctrines  and  opinions,  but 
afterwards  opposed  some  of  his  leading  doctrines  with  great 
warmth.  Occam  was  a  man  of  independent  spirit,  and  boldly 
stepped  forth  in  opposition  to  the  high  claims  advanced  by  Boni- 
face VIII,  in  which  that  ambitious  pontiff  maintained,  that  "all 
emperors,  kings  and  princes  are  subject  to  the  supreme  authori- 
ty of  the  pope,  in  temporals  as  well  as  in  spirituals,"  and  that 
God  has  established  the  authority  of  the  pope  "over  kings  and 
kingdoms,  to  root  up,  to  pull  down,  to  destroy,  to  scatter,  to 
build  up,  and  to  plant  in  his  name  and  by  his  doctrine."  The 
\vork  he  published  on  this  subject  is  entitled  "On  the  Ecclcsias- 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  _)93 

tic  and  Secular  Power."  Being  protected  by  the  emperor,  Louis 
of  Bavaria,  he  withstood  the  rage  of  the  Pontiffs  who  denounced 
him,  but  on  the  death  of  the  emperor,  he  was  obliged  to  re- 
nounce  his  heterodox  opinions,  and  swear  implicit  submission  to 
the  decisions  of  the  papal  chair.  He  was  no  doubt  a  man  of 
great  learning,  and  was  honored  with  the  title  of  the  Invincible 
doctor. 

At  this  period  there  were  a  number  of  British  historians,  but 
few  of  whom  were  remarkable  for  their  talents  or  abilities 
as  historians — they  were  annalists,  or  writers  of  chronicles, 
whose  works  were  barren  of  interest.  Among  them,  however, 
Matthew  Paris  deserves  a  place,  on  account  of  his  merit  as  a 
faithful  historian,  whose  works  are  still  referred  to  by  historians 
of  our  own  times.  So  little  is  known,  however,  of  his  per- 
sonal history,  that  we  are  not  informed,  either  of  the  time  or 
place  of  his  birth.  It  appears  that  he  took  the  habit  of  a  monk, 
in  the  abbey  of  St.  Albans,  A.  D.  1217.  In  this  abbey  he  con- 
tinued many  years,  enjoying  a  high  reputation  for  learning, 
piety  and  virtue,  and  was  on  a  friendly  and  familiar  footing  with 
king  Henry  III.  He  is  said  to  have  been  "an  elegant  poet,  an 
eloquent  orator,  an  acute  logician,  a  subtle  philosopher,  a  solid 
divine,  a  celebrated  historian,  and,  which  crowned  the  whole,  a 
man  justly  famous  for  the  purity,  integrity,  innocence,  and  sim- 
plicity of  his  manners."  He  was  a  voluminous  writer;  a  great 
portion  of  his  works  treated  on  theological  subjects,  which  have 
shared  the  fate  of  those  of  many  of  his  contemporaries.  His 
greatest  work  is  entitled  "Historia  Major,"  and  contains  the 
history  of  England  from  the  time  of  the  Norman  conquest,  A.  D. 
1066,  to  the  43d  year  of  Henry  III,  A.  D.  1259,  at  which  time 
the  author  died.  In  this  work  he  censures  without  ceremony, 
and  in  the  plainest  language,  the  vices  and  follies  of  persons  of 
the  highest  rank  and  greatest  power,  and  the  firmness  of  his 
character  is  plainly  indicated,  by  the  bold  manner  in  which  he 
attacks  and  exposes,  the  boundless  profligacy  and  abandoned 
perfidy  of  the  papal  court,  then  in  the  very  zenith  of  its  power 
and  pretensions. 

Having  mentioned  a  few  of  the  learned  men  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  let  us  for  a  few  moments,  turn  our  attention  to  the  dif- 
ferent schools  and  colleges,  established  or  revived,  in  different 
parts  of  Europe.  A  desire  of  knowledge  having  been  excited,, 


294  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

which  spread  among  the  laity,  schemes  were  formed  for  the 
promotion  of  the  study  of  elegant  literature  and  improving  the 
public  taste.  Schools  were  established  in  the  principal  cities  by 
public  bounty,  or  private  munificence,  in  which  young  men  of 
narrow  circumstances  had  an  opportunity  of  being  educated  in 
the  different  branches  of  literature  and  science,  as  well  as  the 
abstract  doctrines  of  theology,  and  the  metaphysical  subtleties 
of  philosophy.  About  the  year  1 225,  Frederick,  king  of  Naples 
and  Sicily,  having  ascended  the  imperial  throne,  founded  the 
university  of  Naples,  and  established  professorships  of  law,  the- 
ology, medicine  and  grammar,  to  fill  which  he  invited  the  most 
learned  men  of  Italy.  He  conferred  upon  it  important  privi- 
leges, calculated,  by  a  proper  exercise,  to  promote  the  great  end 
in  view,  and  extend  its  usefulness.  Being  under  the  royal  pat- 
ronage it  flourished,  and  soon  could  boast  of  numerous  students; 
and  in  order  to  augment  the  number  of  professors  and  scholars, 
Frederick  ordered  those  belonging  to  the  university  of  Bologna, 
to  attach  themselves  to  that  of  Naples.  This  order  was  issued 
at  a  time  when  the  former  city  labored  under  the  displeasure  of 
Frederick;  the  university,  however,  paid  no  attention  to  his 
commands,  or  his  menaces,  so  that  botli  institutions  were  in  exis- 
tence at  the  same  time,  each  contributing  their  exertions  for 
the  promotion  of  knowledge. 

The  academy  of  Paris,  which  had  been  long  established,  about 
this  time  extended  the  sphere  of  its  usefulness,  and  teachers 
and  professors  were  appointed  in  every  branch  of  learning  then 
known — they  were  not  confined  to  theology  and  its  kindred 
branches.  Its  teachers  became  celebrated  for  their  erudition, 
and  the  fame  of  the  school  being  spread  abroad,  attracted  a 
greater  number  of  students  than  any  other  institution  of  learning, 
with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  some  of  the  schools  of  Spain. 
The  academy  of  Paris  being  thus  distinguished,  assumed  the 
title  of  university,  and  the  professors  were  divided  into  four 
classes,  according  to  the  branches  they  professed,  which  classes 
were  called  faculties.  In  each  of  these  faculties,  a  doctor  was 
chosen  by  the  suffrages  of  his  colleagues,  to  preside  during  a 
certain  time,  and  the  title  of  Dean  was  given  to  those  who  suc- 
cessively filled  that  office.  The  head  of  the  university,  or  the 
presiding  officer  of  the  whole,  was  called  the  Chancellor,  which 
office  was  usually  filled  by  the  archbishop  of  Parirgv 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  29£ 

The  examination  of  such  as  were  desirous  t>f  being  admitted 
as  professors  in  any  of  the  faculties,  was  long  and  tedious;  they 
were  obliged  to  give  undoubted  proofs  of  their  learning  and  ca- 
pacity, before  they  were  received  as  public  teachers.  This 
examination  was  called  the  academical  course,  and  was  designed 
to  prevent  the  multiplication  of  incompetent  teachers.  An  ad- 
mirable regulation!  worthy  of  imitation  at  the  present  day, 
when  so  many  take  upon  themselves  the  education  of  youth,  who 
are  totally  unqualified,  and  incompetent  to  discharge  its  sim- 
plest duties,  and  who  degrade  a  profession  which  ought  to  oc- 
cupy an  elevated  rank. 

Attached  to  the  university  of  Paris,  was  the  celebrated  college 
of  Sorbonne,  which  was  founded  A.  D.  1250,  by  an  opulent  man5 
named  Robert  dc  Sorbonne,  and  called  after  him.  This  college 
was  founded,  endowed  and  set  apart  for  the  study  of  divinity — 
the  most  celebrated  theologians  were  appointed  to  fill  its  chairs, 
who,  in  process  of  time,  gained  so  great  a  reputation  for  piety, 
wisdom,  and  soundness  of  faith  and  doctrine,  that  the  most  dif- 
ficult and  controverted  points  were  submitted  to  their  decision — 
indeed,  the  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  were  at  length  considered, 
almost  as  infallible  in  their  judgments,  as  the  pope  himself. 

In  England  the  same  desire  was  generally  manifested  for  the 
extension  of  learning;  indeed,  there  never  had  been  so  general 
an  application  to  study.  The  university  of  Oxford,  founded  by 
Alfred,  had  experienced  many  disasters,  but  had  recovered  from 
them  all,  and  was  now  in  a  flourishing  condition.  The  city  of 
Oxford  suffered  greatly  by  the  incursions  of  the  Danes,  and  af- 
terwards by  the  Normans,  and  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century  was  reduced  to  ashes  by  king  Stephen.  The  professors 
and  students  of  the  university  were  dispersed,  but  returned 
again  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II,  who  was  a  patron  of  learning, 
and  used  his  power  and  interest  to  promote  it.  In  the  reign  of 
king  John,  a  circumstance  occurred  which  threatened  serious 
consequences.  One  of  the  students  accidentally  killed  a  woman, 
and  made  his  escape  for  fear  of  punishment.  A  mob  immedi- 
ately assembled  and  surrounded  the  university,  but  not  finding 
the  offender,  they  seized  upon  three  other  students,  whom  they 
afterwards  put  to  death,  by  order  of  king  John.  The  professors 
and  students  immediately  left  Oxford,  and  complaining  to  the 
pope,  he  issued  a  bull  laying  the  city  under  an  interdict*  and 


2<jG  HISTORY  Of  LITERATURE.  ^ 

prohibiting  any  person  from  teaching  in  the  university;  but. 
about  five  years  after,  the  interdict  was  taken  off,  and  the  city 
and  university  being  restored  to  their  privileges,  upwards  of  four 
thousand  members  were  enrolled  in  the  list  of  students — an  as-* 
(onishing  number  in  that  age,  to  be  devoted  to  the  pursuits  of 
learning,  in  a  single  institution.  The  university  of  Cambridge, 
founded  at  a  very  early  period,  perhaps  before  that  of  Oxford, 
after  suffering  also  from  the  invasions  of  the  Danes  and  Normans, 
became  equally  distinguished  with  the  sister  institution,  and 
produced  her  quota  of  men  of  genius  and  learning. 

Until  after  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  profes- 
sors and  students  of  the  two  universities,  were  accustomed  to 
lodge  and  study  in  private  houses,  which  they  rented  from  the 
citizens.  This  was  attended  with  many  inconveniences,  and 
gave  rise  to  frequent  quarrels  between  the  scholars  and  the  citi- 
zens. To  remove  these  inconveniences,  and  prevent  similar 
quarrels  in  future,  some  liberal  and  generous  patrons  of  learn- 
ing, purchased  or  built  large  houses  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  teachers  and  scholars,  who  occupied  them  without  paying 
rent.  This  was  the  first  step  towards  the  founding  of  colleges, 
and  between  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  and  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  several  colleges  and  halls  were  erected  and 
endowed.  At  Oxford  the  following  were  erected,  namely: 
University  college,  Baliol  college,  Merton  college,  Exeter  col- 
lege, Oriel  college,  Queen's  college,  and  New  college;  and  at 
Cambridge,  Peter  house,  Michael  college,  University  hall,  King's 
hall,  Clare  hall,  Pembroke  hall,  Corpus  Christi  college,  Trinity 
hall,  and  Gonvil  hall.  All  these  colleges  were  erected  during 
the  time  above-mentioned,  and  contained  a  vast  number  of 
students. 

Besides  the  two  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  vari- 
ous other  seminaries  of  learning  were  established,  some  of  which 
were  attached  to  cathedrals  and  religious  houses.  These  es- 
tablishments were  designed  to  instruct  the  young  monks,  in 
those  branches  of  learning  that  were  necessary  to  their  decent 
performance  of  the  services  of  the  church,  particularly  in  the 
Latin  language  and  church  music.  In  these  schools  they  were 
carefully  instructed  in  writing;  when  they  had  acquired  a  fine 
hand,  they  were  employed  in  transcribing  books  for  the  use  of 
tho  church  and  the  library.  In  these  schools  were  also 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  297 

rhetoric,  logic,  theology,  medicine,  and  the  civil  and  common 
law.  There  were  also  schools  established  in  the  chief  cities  and 
towns  not  connected  with  churches  or  monasteries,  but  under 
the  direction  of  independent  teachers;  these  schools  multiplied 
so  exceedingly,  that  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
there  were  upwards  of  two  hundred  in  the  single  city  of  Oxford. 
"On  holidays,"  says  a  contemporary  writer,  "it  was  usual  for 
these  schools  to  hold  public  assemblies  in  the  churches,  in  which 
the  scholars  engaged  in  demonstrative  or  logical  disputations, 
.some  using  enthymems,  and  others  perfect  syllogisms;  some 
aiming  at  nothing  but  to  gain  the  victory,  and  make  an  ostenta- 
tious display  of  their  acuteness,  while  others  had  the  investiga- 
tion of  truth  in  view.  Artful  sophists  on  these  occasions  acquir- 
ed great  applause;  some  by  a  prodigious  inundation  and  flow  of 
words,  others  by  their  specious,  but  fallacious  arguments.  After 
the  disputations,  other  scholars  delivered  rhetorical  declama- 
tions, in  which  they  observed  all  the  rules  of  art,  and  neglected 
no  topic  of  persuasion.  Even  the  younger  boys  in  the  different 
schools  contended  against  each  other  in  verse,  about  the  princi- 
ples of  grammar  and  the  preterites  and  supines  of  verbs." 

One  of  the  great  men  of  the  fourteenth  century  was  the  cele- 
brated John  Wickliff,  who  was  born  A.  D.  1324.  He  was  educa- 
ted at  Oxford,  where  he  merited  and  received  the  highest  hon- 
ors, and  was  advanced  to  the  professorship  of  divinity.  His 
lectures  were  attended  by  crowded  audiences,  attracted  as  well 
by  the  eloquence  of  the  lecturer,  as  the  doctrines  he  advanced. 
In  these  discourses  he  attacked  with  the  utmost  severity  the 
mendicant  friars,  and  with  fearless  spirit  assailed  the  court  df 
Rome  itself,  on  account  of  its  exorbitant  pretensions,  as  well  in 
the  temporal  concerns  of  kingdoms,  as  in  spiritual  matters. 
Having  entered  into  holy  orders,  he  propagated  his  opinions, 
with  untiring  zeal,  from  the  sacred  desk  itself.  In  his  writings 
he  exposed  the  hypocricy,  corruptions  and  vices  of  the  clergy, 
which  are  thus  described  by  Chaucer,  a  contemporary  poet: 

They  use  whoredom  and  harlottrie, 
And  covetise,  and  ponipe  and  pride, 
And  sloth,  and  wrathe,  and  eke  envie, 
And  siwine  tinne  by  every  side. 
As  goddes  godines  no  man  tell  might, 
Ne  write,  ne  speke,  ne  think  in  thought; 

38 


298  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

So  ther  faslshed,and  ther  unright 

Male  no  man  telle  that  ere  God  wrought. 

Chaucer's  Plowman's  Talc. 


Wickliffe  was  so  successful  in  assailing  the  corruptions  of  the 


braced  his  doctrines.  An  innovator  so  bold  and  daring,  could 
not  escape  the  notice  of  the  church  of  Rome;  Wickliff  was 
therefore  deprived  of  his  office  in  the  university  of  Oxford,  and 
A.  D.  1377,  Pope  Gregory  XI  ordered  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, to  summon  a  council  at  London  to  take  cognisance  of 
his  heresies  and  his  manifold  offences  against  papal  infallibility. 
The  death  of  Gregory,  which  happened  soon  after,  and  the  sub- 
sequent schisms  in  the  church  itself,  prevented  the  trial  of 
Wickliff  at  the  time  contemplated.  The  process  was  not  revived 
until  A.  D.  1385,  when  two  councils  were  held,  one  at  London, 
the  other  at  Oxford,  and  his  opinions  were  condemned  as  he- 
retical. Wickliff  died  A.  D.  1387,  leaving  behind  him  many 
followers,  who  were  known  by  the  name  of  Lollards.  Although 
he  died  in  peace,  his  remains  were  not  suffered  to  rest  quietly  in 
the  grave,  but  thirteen. years  after  his  bones  were  taken  up  and 
publicly  burnt — a  warning  to  all  heretics!  His  writings  were 
burnt  wherever  they  could  be  found.  Two  hundred  volumes 
were  burnt  at  Prague  in  Bohemia,  and  a  great  number  at  Ox- 
ford, but  with  all  their  exertions  and  zeal,  many  copies  escaped., 
and  no  doubt  contributed  in  some  degree,  to  that  glorious  refor- 
mation to  which  the  Christian  world  is  indebted,  for  its  liberation 
from  the  shackles  of  superstition,  and  for  that  liberty  of  con- 
science which  is  one  of  the  safeguards  of  freedom.  We  will  con- 
clude our  notice  of  this  celebrated  reformer  with  the  following 
character:  "Dr.  John  Wickliff  was  a  man,  than  whom  the  Chris- 
tian world  in  these  last  ages  has  not  produced  a  greater.  He 
excelled  all  his  contemporaries  in  all  the  different  branches  of 
theological  learning,  and  in  the  knowledge  of  the  civil  and  com- 
mon law.  His  heart  was  inflamed  with  the  most  ardent  love  of 
God, and  goodness  to  man;  which  excited  him  to  the  most  stren- 
uous efforts  to  restore  the  church  to  its  primitive  purity.  The 
eminence  of  his  piety  and  virtue  his  greatest  adversaries  never 
dared  to  call  in  question,  and  to  the  superiority  of  his  natural 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

and  acquired  abilities,  they  have  been  compelled  to  bear  testi- 
mony."* 

After  this  sketch  of  the  institutions  of  learning  in  existance, 
at  the  period  which  forms  the  subject  of  the  present  chapter, 
and  a  notice  of  some  of  the  distinguished  writers  of  the  times 
in  philosophy  and  theology,  we  will  direct  the  attention  of  our 
readers  to  the  contemplation  of  the  more  beautiful  and  inter- 
esting parterre  of  poetry  and  elegant  literature,  which  we  will 
HOW  find  flourishing  in  the  once  classic  soil  of  Italy, 

the  garden  of  the  world,  the  home 

Of  all  art  yields  and  nature  can  decree. 

For  this  purpose  we  must  carry  our  readers  back  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  thirteenth  century. 

About  the  time  of  Frederick,  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  after- 
wards emperor  of  Germany,  the  Italian  language  began  to  be 
cultivated  and  improved.  It  was  found  from  its  harmony  and 
copiousness  to  be  suited  as  well  to  express  the  noblest  and  sub- 
limest  sentiments  of  our  nature,  as  the  gentler  feelings  of  the 
heart — and  as  well  adapted  to  the  loftiest  declamations  of  the 
orator,  as  the  softer  strains  of  poetry.  Frederick  was  himself 
a  poet,  and  composed  verses,  after  the  manner  of  the  Trouba- 
dours, when  very  young.  His  prime  minister,  Pietro  delle 
Vigne,  and  the  most  distinguished  men  of  his  court,  in  imitation 
of  their  sovereign,  and  encouraged  by  his  example,  courted  the 
muses,  and  produced  songs  and  other  poems,  which  were  much 
esteemed  for  their  tenderness  of  expression,  and  like  the  verses 
*)f  the  Troubadours  were  generally  in  praise  of  some  peerless 
beauty,  or  celebrated  some  renowned  feat  of  arms. 

The  creation  of  Italian  poetry  may  be  said  to  be  the  work,  in 
a  considerable  degree,  of  the  kings  of  Sicily  and  their  subjects, 
but  it  was  brought  to  greater  perfection  by  Dante,  who  has  been 
styled  the  "Father  of  Italian  poetry."  Before  the  time  of  Dante, 
a  number  of  Italian  poets  flourished  who  disputed  with  each 
other  for  the  prize.  Two  of  these  rose  above  the  rest,  and  alike 
superior  to  the  flatteries  of  princes  or  the  blandishment  of  courts, 
they  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  the  force  of  genius  alone. 
One  of  them,  Hugh  Catola,  employed  his  talents  in  combating 
the  tyranny  and  corruption  of  princes,  and  inveighing  against 

*  Henry's  Hist,  of  Gr,  Brit.  5  Mosh,  Ecc,  His. ;  Enfield's  Hi»t,  of  Phil. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE; 

their  vices,  but  none  of  his  productions  have  been  preserved. 
Of  the  other,  Sordello  ofaMantua,  the  writers  of  his  time  speak 
with  sentiments  of  profound  respect,  but  without  entering  into 
any  detail  of  the  particulars  of  his  life — indeed  his  history  seems 
to  be  involved  in  great  mystery.  He  is  said  to  have  been  of 
noble  birth,  and  to  have  distinguished  himself  by  deeds  of  arms. 
Dante  has  immortalized  his  name  by  introducing  him  in  his  im- 
mortal poem.  When  about  to  enter  purgatory,  with  Virgil,  he 
sees  his  shade  at  some  distance. 

"We  soon  approach'd  it.    O  thou  Lombard  spirit! 

How  didst  thou  stand  in  high  abstracted  mood, 

Scarce  moving  with  slow  dignity  thine  eyes. 

It  spoke  not  aught  but  let  us  onward  pass, 

Eying  us  as  a  lion  on  his  watch. 

But  Virgil,  with  entreaty  mild.advanc'd, 

Requesting  it  to  shew  the  best  ascent. 

It  answer  to  his  question  none  return'd ; 

But  of  our  country  and  our  kind  of  life 

Demanded.     When  my  courteous  guide  began, 

"Mantua,"  the  solitary  shadow  quick 

Rose  tow'rds  us  from  the  place  in  which  it  stood, 

And  cry'd,"Mantuan!  I  am  thy  countryman, 

Sordello."     Each  the  other  then  embrac'd. 

Carey's  Dante  jPurg.  Can.  VI.  70. 

Dante  seizes  upon  the  opportunity  offered  by  this  friendly  re- 
cognition of  the  Mantuan  bards,  to  apostrophize  the  Italian  re- 
publics, on  the  disorders  which  distract  and  divide  them.  This 
apostrophe  has  been  much  admired  for  the  spirit  it  breathes,  as 
well  as  the  eloquent  appeal  to  his  countrymen,  and  is  regarded 
by  admirers  of  Italian  poetry  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
striking  passages  in  the  poem. 

Ah,  slavish  Italy!  thou  inn  of  grief! 

Vessel  without  a  pilot  in  loud  storm! 

Lady  no  longer  of  fair  provinces, 

But  brothel  house  impure!  this  gentle  spirit, 

Ev'n  from  the  pleasant  sound  of  his  dear  land 

Was  prompt  to  greet  a  fellow  citizen 

With  such  glad  cheer:  while  now  thy  living  ones 

In  thee  abide  not  without  war;  and  one 

Malicious  gnaws  another;  ah,  of  those 

Whom  the  same  wall  and  the  same  meat  contains.. 

Seek,  wretched  one !  around  thy  sea  coasts  wide ; 

Thenliomeward  to  thy  bosom  turn;  and  mark, 

If  any  part  of  thee  sweet  peace  enjoy. 

What  boots  it,  that  thy  reins  Justinian's  han'd 

Refitted,  if  thy  saddle  be  impressed? 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  30  j 

Nought  doth  now  but  aggravate  thy  shame. 
Ah  people  !thou  obedient  still  shouldst  live, 
And  in  the  saddle  let  thy  Caesar  sit, 
If  well  thou  mark'st  that  which  God  command. 

Ibid.  Purg.  Can.  vi.  75. 

Dante  was  born  at  Florence  A.  D.  1 265,  of  a  distinguished 
femily.  The  father  of  Dante  dying  while  he  was  very  young, 
he  was  placed  under  the  care  ofBrunetto  Latmi,  a  philosopher 
of  considerable  distinction.  He  applied  himself  with  so  much 
diligence  that  he  acquired  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  sciences 
then  cultivated,  and  as  much  of  ancient  literature  as  it  was  pos- 
sible to  acquire,  at  a  period  when  the  art  of  printing  was  un- 
known, and  books  were  multiplied  with  so  much  labour  and 
difficulty.  He  also  studied  in  the  universities  of  Padua  arid  Bo- 
logna; and  when  much  advanced  in  life,  and  in  exile,  he 
visited  that  of  Paris,  and  went  through  a  course  of  theological 
study.  Dante  was  early  remarked  for  that  superior  genius  and 
political  talent  which  have  given  him  an  illustrious  name  among 
modern  poets.  He  filled  the  highest  offices  of  his  native  city, 
and  it  is  said  was  no  less  than  fourteen  times  ambassador  to  for- 
eign states — honors  and  distinctions  which  seldom  fall  to  the  lot 
of  poets.  He  was  also  a  soldier,  and  distinguished  himself  ia 
several  battles,  particularly  in  the  battle  of  Campaldino,  when 
the  Florentines  gained  a  complete,  but  dearly  bought  victory, 
over  the  Aretini.  In  the  following  year  he  also  distinguished 
himself  in  a  battle  against  the  Pisans. 

:*r  During  that  period,  when  almost  all  Italy  was  torn  to  pieces 
by  the  contending  factions  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  and 
when  it  was  impossible  for  any  one  to  be  neuter,  Dante  joined 
the  standard  of  the  former;  and  when  Florence  became  the  the- 
atre of  continual  quarrels  and  bloodshed  between  the  Nen  and 
the  Bianchi^  two  parties  into  which  the  Florentines  were  divided, 
Dante,  who  had  attached  himself  to  the  Bianchi,  was  condemned 
to  banishment,  his  property  confiscated,  and  his  house  destroyed. 
After  several  unsuccessful  attempts,  in  conjunction  with  other 
exiles,  to  gain  possession  of  their  native  city,  he  was  destined  to 
wander  over  Italy  in  abject  poverty.  At  length,  when  the  sen- 
tence of  perpetual  banishment  was  confirmed,  he  found  a  friend 
and  protector  in  Guido  Novello  da  Polenta,  an  Italian  noble  of 
liberal  and  generous  mind,  a  protector  of  learning  and  himself  a 
poet,  and  through  his  assistance  he  fixed  his  residence  at  the  citj 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


of  Ravenna.  In  his  immortal  poem  he  introduces  his  great-great 
grand  father  Cacciaguida,  who  predicts  his  exile,  and  the  calam- 
ities he  would  suffer; 


such  as  driv'n  oat 


From  Athens,  by  his  cruel  stepdame's  wiles 
Hyppolytus  departed ;  such  must  thou 
Depart  from  Florence. 


Thou  shalt  leave  each  thing 

Belov'd  most  dearly:  this  is  the  first  shaft 

Shot  from  the  bow  of  exile.    Thou  shalt  prove 

How  salt  the  savour  is  of  others  bread  5 

How  hard  the  passage,  to  descend  and  climb 

Bv  other's  stairs.     But  that  shall  gall  the  most 

Will  be  the  worthless  and  vile  company, 

With  whom  thou  must  be  thrown  into  these  straits. 

For  all  ungrateful,  impious  all,  and  mad 

Shall  turn  against  thee:  but  in  a  little  while, 

Theirs  and  not  thine, shall  be  the  crimson'd  brow. 

Careys  Dante,  Pur.  Can.  xvii.  45. 

Talents  such  as  his  could  not  long  remain  in  obscurity :  it  was. 
therefore,  but  a  short  time  before  he  rose  to  consideration,  and 
was  appointed  to  negotiate  a  treaty  with  the  Venitians,  but  be- 
ing unable  to  obtain  an  audience  of  the  Doge  and  senate,,  he 
returned  to  Ravenna,  where  he  died  A.  D.  1321,  and  was  inter- 
red with  great  magnificence  by  his  patron  Guido,  who  pronounc- 
ed his  funeral  oration.  The  Florentines,  after  he  had  paid  the 
debt  of  nature,  became  sensible  of  his  great  merit,  and  the  injus- 
tice they  had  done  him,  and,  like  the  Athenians,  who  demanded 
the  body  of  Euripides  from  Archelaus,  king  of  Macedonia,  made? 
several  attempts  to  procure  his  bones,  but  without  success.  The 
attempt  was  often  renewed,  and  even  the  request  of  Leo  the 
tenth,  to  a  similar  effect  was  refused. 

Ungrateful  Florence !  Dante  sleeps  afar 
Like  Scipio,  buried  by  the  upbraiding  slave; 
Thy  factions,  in  their  worse  than  civil  war, 
Proscribed  the  bard  whose  name  forever  more, 
Their  children's  children  would  in  vain  adore, 
With  the  remorse  of  ages. 

Childe  Hat:  Can.  v.  57. 

Although  his  countrymen  failed  in  procuring  his  bones  to  be 
interred  within  their  walls,  they  struck  medals  and  erected  staf> 
ues  in  his  honor,  and  even  instituted  a  professorship  for  the  pur- 
pose of  lecturing  upon  and  illustrating  his  poem?.  To  this  chai  i 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  303 

the  Celebrated  Boccacio  was  first  appointed,  with  a  salary  of 
one  hundred  florins  per  annum. 

Although  the  merits  of  Dante  are  variously  estimated  by  mod- 
ern citizens,  he  is  justly  entitled  to  the  distinction  of  "Father  of 
Italian  poetry."  Before  his  time  the  studies  of  those  who  devot- 
ed themselves  to  literary  pursuits,  were  almost  exclusively  di- 
rected to  philosophy  and  theology ;  all  else  was  esteemed  unwor- 
thy the  attention  of  those  who  assumed  the  character  of  philoso- 
phers, and  undertook  to  be  the  teachers  of  mankind.  From  the 
time  of  Claudian,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Honorius,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  a  period  of  nine  hundred  years, 
no  poet  of  distinguished  reputation  had  appeared — none  whose 
name  or  works  are  worth  remembering,  if  we  except  the  effu- 
sions of  the  Troubadours,  before  noticed.  Dante  was  unac- 
quainted with  the  Greek  language,  but  was  perfectly  familiar 
with  the  Latin,  the  language  in  which  all  literary  works  wrere 
at  that  time  composed,  as  if  the  vernacular  tongue  was  incapable 
of  conveying  an  authors  meaning.  Dante  had  taste  enough  to 
discover  the  beauties  of  his  native  tongue,  and  his  genius  readi- 
ly perceived  the  capability  of  the  soft  and  sonorous  language  of 
Tuscany,  to  all  the  purposes  of  poetic  composition.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  poetical  works;  his  fame,  however,  rests 
upon  his  "Vision,"  or  as  it  is  called  Divina  Comedia,  or  Divine 
Comedy,  in  which  he  conducts  his  readers  through  Hell,  Purga- 
tory and  Paradise.  This  poem  is  divided  into  one  hundred  Can- 
tos, in  which  he  exhibits  a  variety  of  characters,  of  all  ages  and 
conditions,  in  the  various  stages  of  happiness  and  misery,  accord- 
ing to  the  religious  creed  of  the  church  to  which  he  belonged. 
Its  great  excellence  consists  in  "elevation  of  sentiment  to  which 
.the  compressed  diction  and  emphatic  cadences  of  the  measure 
admirably  correspond.  We  read  him  not  as  an  amusing  poet, 
but  as  a  master  of  moral  wisdom,  with  reverance  and  awe. 
Fresh  from  the  deep  and  serious,  though  somewhat  barren  stu 
dies  of  philosophy,  and  schooled  in  the  severer  discipline  of  ex- 
perience, he  has  made  his  poem  a  mirror  of  his  mind  and  life." 

This  poem  recites  the  events  of  a  journey,  the  poet  imagines 
himself  to  have  taken  through  hell,  purgatory  and  paradise.  He 
travels  through  the  two  first  kingdoms  of  the  dead  under  the  con- 
duct of  Virgil,  and  through  paradise  under  that  of  Beatrice, 
whom  he  had  loved  i  n  his  youth,  and  who  died  A.  D.  1 290.  Tho 


: 


j()4  HISTORY  OF  LITERATUllE. 

two  poets  set  out  together  and  arriving  at  the  gates  of  Hell  are 
admitted  to  the  dreary  regions  where 


-sighs,  with  lamentations  and  loud  moans 


Resound  through  the  air  pierc'd  by  no  star. 

They  traverse  these  gloomy  abodes,  until  they  reach  the  "woe- 
ful tide  of  Acheron,"  over  which  they  are  transported  in  the 
boat  of  Charon  whose 


•demoniac  form, 


With  eyes  of  burning  coal,  collects  them  all, 
Beck'ning,  and  each  that  lingers,  with  his  oar 
Strikes. 

Having  crossed  the  gloomy  Acheron,  our  traveller  reaches 
the  first  circle  of  Hell,  where  he  finds  the  souls  of  many,  who 
for  want  of  baptism,  are  not  permitted  to  enter  paradise. 

There  Socrates  and  Plato  both  I  mark'd 
Nearest  to  him  in  rank,  Democritus 
Who  sets  the  world  at  chance,  Diogenes, 
With  Heroditus,  and  Empedocles 
And  Anaxagoras,  and  Thales  sage, 
Zeno,  and  Dioscorides  well  read 
In  Nature's  secret  lore.     Orpheus  I  mark'd 
And  Linus,  Tully  and  moral  Seneca 
Euclid  and  Ptolemy,  Hippocrates 
Galenus,  Avicen,  and  him  who  made 
That  commentary  vast,  Averroes. 

Careys  Dante,  HeU.  Can.  iv.  130. 

In  the  fifth  canto  he  describes  the  second  circle  of  Hell,  where 


-Minos  stands 


Grinning  with  ghastly  features 


Here  he  witnesses  the  punishment  of  those  whose  offences  were 
not  of  the  deepest  die,  and  who  were  treated  with  some  share 
of  indulgence.  Here  he  encounters  the  shade  of  Francesca> 
daughter  of  his  friend  and  patron  Guido  da  Polenta.  Francesca 
was  given  in  marriage  to  Lanciotto  Malatesta,  a  man  of  extra- 
ordinary courage,  but  deformed  in  his  person.  His  brother 
Poalo,  who  possessed  the  graces  which  he  wanted,  engaged  the 
affections  of  Francesca,  and  being  taken  in  adultery  they  were 
both  put  to  death  by  the  enraged  husband.  Dante  thus  ac- 
costs her? 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


Francesca !  your  sad  fate 


Even  to  tears  my  grief  and  pity  moves. 
But  tell  me ;  in  the  time  of  your  sweet  sighs, 
By  what,  and  how  love  granted,  that  ye  knew 
Your  yet  uncertain  wishes?  She  replied: 
No  greater  grief  than  to  remember  days 
Of  joy,  when  misery  is  at  hand.     That  kens 
They  beam'd  instruction.     Yet  so  eagerly 
If  thou  art  bent  to  know  the  primal  root 
From  whence  our  love  got  being,  I  will  do 
As  one,  who  weeps  and  tells  his  tale;  one  day, 
For  our  delight  we  read  of  Lancelot, 
How  him  love  thrall'd.     Alone  we  were,  and  no 
Suspicion  near  us.     Ofttimes  by  that  reading 
Our  eyes  were  drawn  together,  and  the  hue 
Fled  from  our  altered  cheek.     But  at  one  pom 
Alone  we  fell.     When  of  that  smile  we  read, 
The  wish'd  smile,  so  rapturously  kiss'd 
By  one  so  deep  in  love,  then  he  who  ne'er 
From  me  shall  separate,  at  once  my  lips 
All  trembling  kiss'd.     The  book  and  writer  both 
Were  love's  purveyors.    In  its  leaves  that  day 
We  read  no  more," 
t  Ibid,  Can.  v.  113. 

This  passage  has  been  particularly  admired,  for  the  delicaey 
and  sensibility  with  which  the  unfortunate  Francesca  intimates 
her  guilt,  and  the  interest  of  the  narative  is  increased  when  we 
remember,  that  she  was  the  daughter  of  the  liberal  friend  and 
generous  protector  of  the  author. 

In  the  sixth  Canto  he  gives  the  following  description  of  Cer 
berus,  who,  according  to  heathen  mythology,  guarded  the  en- 
trance to  the  palace  of  Pluto. 

Cerberus,  cruel  monster,  fierce  and  strange, 

Through  his  wide  threefold  throat,  barks  as  a  dog 

Over  the  multitude  immersed  beneath. 

His  eyes  glare  crimson,  black  his  unctuous  beard, 

His  belly  large,  and  claw'd  the  hands,  with  which 

He  tears  the  spirits,  flays  them,  and  their  limbs 

Piecemeal  dispart!?.    Howling  there  spread,  as  curs, 

Under  the  rainy  deluge,  with  one  side 

The  other  sceening,  oft  they  roll  them  round, 

A  wretched,  godless  crew.    When  that  great  worm 

Descried  us,  savage  Cerberus,  op'd 

His  jaws,  and  the  fangs  show'd  us;  not  a  limb 

Of  him  but  trembled. 

Ibid,  Can.  vi.  12. 

Under  the  guidance  of  his  Mantuan  friend,  he  visits  every  part 
r>f  the  infernal  regions,  which  he  minutely  describes,  according 

39 


3Qt>  HISTORY  Ol<'  LITERATURE. 

to  the  opinions  then  entertained — he  converses  freely  with  the 
shades  he  meets,  learns  from  them  the  causes  of  their  confine- 
ment and  punishment  in  this  place  of  horror — he  witnesses  their 
torments,  which  he  describes  in  language  that  makes  the  very 
Ibhood  run  cold  at  the  recital.  But,  among  the  host  whose  crimes 
had  condemned  them  to  endless  and  excruciating  torture,  none 
suffer  more  than  heretics — those  who  were  bold  enough  to  de- 
ny the  infallibility  of  the  pope,  and  dispute  some  of  the  dogmas 
of  the  church.  This  sufficiently  marks  the  temper  of  the  times, 
and  shows  that,  whatever  disposition  existed  to  promote  polite 
literature,  there  was  no  charity  for  those  who  ventured  to  think 
and  speak,  upon  reli-gious  subject?,  in  a  manner  at  variance  with 
the  established  creed.  These  hopeless  sinners  were  confined  iii 
tombs  burning  with  intense  fire ; 

Their  lids  all  hung  suspended  ;  and  beneath , 

From  them  forth  issued  lamentable  moans, 

Such  as  the  sad  and  tortur'd  well  might  raise. 

I  thus: "Master,  say  who  are  these,  interr'd 

Within  these  vaults,  of  whom  distinct  we  hear 

The  dolorous  sighs."     lie  answer  thus  return'd: 

"The  arch-heretics  are  here,  accompanied 

By  every  sect  their  followers;  and  much  more, 

Thau  thoubelicv'st,  the  tombs  are  freighted:  like 

With  like  is  buried;  and  the  monuments 

Are  different  in  degrees  of  heat."  Ibid,  Can.  i\.  1 1!». 

}  Caving  traversed  the  first  region  of  the  dead,  he  emerges  front 
ihe  gloomy  abode  of  suffering,  and  enters  Purgatory,  where  th«. 
souls  of  the  elect  are  chastened  by  long  sufferings,  before  they 
are  permitted  to  enter  the  gates  of  Paradise.  Of  his  entrance 
into  Purgatory  he  thus  speaks: 

Here,  O  ye  hallow'd  Nine!  for  in  your  train 

I  follow,  here  the  deaden'd  strain  revive; 

IVor  let  Calliope  refuse  to  sound 

A  somewhat  higher  song,  of  that  loud  tone, 

Which  when  the  wretched  birds  of  chattering  note 

Had  heard,  they  of  forgiveness  lost  all  hope. 

Sweet  hue  of  eastern  sapphire,  that  was  spread 
O'er  the  serene  aspect  of  the  pure  air, 
High  up  as  the  first  circle,  to  mine  eyes 
Unwonted  joy  renew 'd,  soon  as  I  scap'd 
Forth  from  the  atmosphere  of  deadly  gloom 
That  had  mine  eyes  and  bosom  fill'd  with  grief. 
The  radiant  planet,  that  to  love  invites, 
Made  all  the  orient  laugh,  and  veil'd  beneath 
The  Pisces'  light,  that  in.  his  escort  came. 

Ibid,  Pur*  Qnit  i.  "-' 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Having  passed  through  the  various  departments  of  Purgatory, 
where  he  meets  with  many  of  those  celebrated  men  who  had  a- 
dorned  Italy,  and  who  were  going  through  that  state  of  proba- 
tion which  is  to  fit  them  for  their  future  residence  in  the  regions 
of  bliss,  he  arrives  at  the  terrestrial  paradise,  which  he  finds  sit- 
uated on  the  summit  of  a  mountain.  He  is  conducted  through 
Paradise  by  Beatrice,  whose  descent  from  Heaven  he  describes 
m  the  following  beautiful  language. 

I  have  beheld,  ere  now,  at  break  of  day, 
The  eastern  clime  all  roseate ;  and  the  sky 
Oppos'd ,  one  deep  and  beautiful  serene ; 
And  the  sun's  face  so  shaded,  and  with  mists 
Attemper'd,  at  his  rising,  that  the  eye 
Longwhile  endur'd  the  sight:  thus,  in  a  cloud, 
Of  flowers,  that  from  those  hands  angelic  rose, 
And  down  within  and  outside  of  the  car 
Fell  showering,  in  white  veil  with  olive  wreath'd 
A  virgin  in  my  view  appear'd,  beneath 
Green  mantle,  rob'd  in  hue  of  living  flame: 
And  o'er  my  spirit,  that  so  long  a  time 
'.  v«/    Had  from  her  presence  felt  no  shudd'ring  dread, 
Albeit  my  eyes  discern'd  her  not,  there  mov'd 
A  hidden  virtue  from  her,  at  whose  touch 
The  power  of  ancient  love  was  strong  within  me. 

Ibid,  Pur.  Can.  xxx.  23. 

He  is  conducted  by  Beatrice  through  the  different  abodes  of 
the  blest,  and  their  several  states  of  beatitude  are  painted  with 
the  same  glowing  pencil.  He  first  visits  the  moon,  the  first  res- 
idence of  the  blest,  which  he  finds  inhabited  by  the  souls  of  those 
who  had  pronounced  vows  of  celibacy  and  religious  seclusion, 
but  who  had  been  compelled  to  renounce  them,  as  in  the  case 
of  Picarda,  a  holy  nun,  whose  story  the  poet  relates.  The  se- 
cond heaven  is  the  planet  Mercury,  where  he  meets  with  the 
Emperor  Justinian,  with  whom  he  enters  into  conversation,  and 
who  kindly  offers  to  satisfy  his  curiosity  with  regard  to  whatever 
he  may  desire  to  know,  relating  to  the  seoond  heaven.  The 
third  heaven  is  the  planet  Venus.  The  fourth  heaven  is  the 
Sun,  where  the  souls  of  Thomas  Aquinas  a  Dominican,  and  Bu- 
onaventura,  a  Franciscan,  have  found  resting  places.  The  for- 
mer enters  into  an  account  of  the  life  and  character  of  St.  Fran- 
cis, while  the  latter  in  like  manner  celebrates  the  virtues  and 
piety  of  St.  Dominic — an  act  of  courtesy  they  would  scarcely 
have  performed  whilst  on  earth.  The  fifth  heaven  is  the 


30g  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

.. 

Mars,  where  the  souls  of  those  who  had  nobly  drawn  their 
swords,  and  combatted  for  the  true  faith  against  the  infidels  of 
the  holy  land,  are  rewarded.  Here  Dante  encounters  one  of 
his  ancestors,  Cacciaguido,  who  speaks  of  the  simple  manners 
of  his  countrymen  in  his  day,  when  Florence 

Was  chaste  and  sober  and  abode  in  peace. 

He  predicts  the  exile  of  our  poet,  and  exhorts  him  to  write 
his  poem.  The  sixth  heaven  is  Jupiter,  where  he  finds  the  souls 
of  those  who  had  administered  justice  rightly  in  the  world,  so 
disposed,  as  to  form  the  figure  of  an  eagle.  Here  the  poet,  who 
seems  to  have  entertained  some  doubt,  respecting  the  possibili- 
ty of  salvation  without  belief  in  Christ,  has  the  difficulty  solved^ 
by  being  told  that 

None  ever  hath  ascended  to  this  realm, 

Who  hath  not  a  believer  been  in  Christ, 

Either  before  or  after  the  blest  limbs 

Were  nail'd  upon  the  wood.     But  lo!  of  those 

Who  call  'Christ,  Christ,'  there  shall  be  many  found 

In  judgement,  further  off  from  him  by  far, 

Than  such  to  whom  his  name  was  never  known, 

Christians  like  these  the  Ethiop  shall  condemn: 

When  that  the  two  assemblages  shall  part; 

One  rich  eternally,  the  other  poor. 

The  seventh  heaven  is  Saturn,  inhabited  by  the  souls  of  those 
who  had  passed  their  lives  in  holy  contemplation.  The  eighth 
heaven,  is  that  of  the  fixed  stars,  where  the  poet  sees 


the  triumphal  hosts 

Of  Christ,  and  all  the  harvest  gather'd  in 
Made  ripe  by  these  revolving  spheres. 


He  ascends  to  the  ninth  heaven,  where  he  is  permitted  to  be- 
hold the  divine  essence.  In  the  tenth  heaven  he  beholds  the 
Virgin  Mary,  whom  St.  Bernard  supplicates,  that  our  poet  may 
have  grace  given  him  to  contemplate  the  divine  majesty?  which 
being  granted, 


Beck'ning  smil'd  the  sage. 


That  I  should  look  aloft;  but  ere  he  bade, 
Already  of  myself  aloft  I  look'd; 
For  visual  strength,  repining  more  and  more; 
Bare  me  into  the  ray  authentical 

Ofsov'reign  light 

Such  keenessfrom  the  living  ray  I  met 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

That,  if  mine  eyes  had  turn 'd  away.methinks, 
I  had  been  lost;  but,  so  embolden'd,  on 
I  pass'd,  as  I  remember,  till  my  view 
Hover'd  the  brink  of  dread  infinitude. 

Ibid,  Par.  Can.  xxxiii. 


He  thus  describes  the  Trinity: 


In  that  abyss 


Of  radiance,  clear  and  lofty,  seem'd  methought, 
Three  orbs  of  triple  hue,  dipt  in  one  bound: 
And,  from  another,  one  reflected  stem'd, 
As  rainbow  is  from  rainbow:  and  the  third 

Setm'd  fire,  breath'd  equally  from  both. 

Ibid. 

The  foregoing  extracts  from  the  great  poem  of  Dante,  will 
afford  the  reader  who  is  unacquainted  with  his  works,  some  idea 
of  the  style  and  manner  of  a  poet  who  stood  alone  in  his  age, — 
whose  poem  was  formed  after  no  existing  model,  but  was  the  sole 
product  of  an  active,  vigorous,  and  original  mind.  "It  stands  a- 
lone"  says  an  elegant  writer  and  judicious  critic,"*  as  the  first 
monument  of  modern  genius,  the  first  great  work  that  appeared 
in  the  reviving  literature  of  Europe.  In  its  composition,  it  is 
strictly  conformable  to  the  essential  and  invariable  principles  of 
the  poetical  art.  It  possesses  unity  of  design  and  of  execution; 
and  bears  the  visible  impression  of  a  mighty  genius,  capable  of 
embracing  at  once,  the  parts  and  the  whole  of  its  scheme;  of  em- 
ploying with  facility,  the  most  stupendous  materials,  and  of  ob- 
serving all  the  required  niceties  of  proportion,  without  experi- 
encing any  difficulty  from  the  constraint*  In  all  other  respects, 
the  powei  of  Dante  is -not  within  the  jurisdiction  of  established 
rules.  It  cannot  with  propriety  be  referred  to  any  particular 
class  of  composition,  and  its  author  is  only  to  be  judged  by  those 
laws  which  he  thought  proper  to  impose  upon  himself." 

The  minor  pieces  of  Dante,  consist  principally  of  sonnets,  a 
species  of  composition  for  a  long  time  peculiar  to  Italian  poetry, 
and  which  is  still  a  favorite  mode  of  composition  in  that  lan- 
guage. Of  his  sonnets,  we  present  the  following  written  after 
the  death  of  Beatrice,  translated  by  Carey. 

Ah,  pilgrims!  ye,  that  happy  musing,  go, 

On  aught  save  that  which  on  your  road  ye  meet 

From  land  so  distant,  tell  me,  I  in  treat, 

"  Sismondi,  Lit.Southof  Eur.  Vol.  i,  210. 


310  •*£  HISTORY  OF  LITERATI  1;  i. 

Come  \  e,a>  i-y  your  racin  and  looks)  e  show? 
Why  inouru  ye  not,  as  through  these  gates  ot  wo, 

Ye  wend  along  our  city's  midmost  street, 

Even  like  those  who  nothing  seem  to  meet  ifc 

What  chance  hath  fall'n,  why  she  is  grieving  so 'i 
If  ye  to  listen  but  awhile  would  stay, 

Well  knows  this  heart,  which  inly  sigheth  sore, 

That  ye  would  then  pass,  weeping  on  your  way. 
Oh  hear ;  her  Beatrice  is  no  more ; 

And  words  there  are  a  man  of  her  might  say 

Would  make  a  stranger's  eye  that  loss  deplore. 

Contemporary  with  Dante  was  Petrarch  or  Pctrarco,  who  wa* 
born  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany,  A.  D.  1304,  and  at  the  death  of 
Dante,  was  seventeen  years  of  age.  Petrarch  was  intended  by 
his  father  for  the  law,  and  having  passed  through  the  necessary 
preparatory  studies,  he  was  sent  to  Bologna,  there  to  enter  upon 
its  study,  but  instead  of  applying  himself  to  the  law,  Petrarch 
was  more  frequently  found  dallying  with  the  muses,  or  turning 
over  the  pages  of  elegant  literature.  When  spoken  to  on  his 
neglect  of  a  profession  which  was  calculated  to  lead  him  to 
honor  and  riches,  he  answered,  that  he  "could  not  deprave  his 
mind  by  such  a  system  of  chicanery,  as  the  present  forms  of  law 
exhibited."  This  neglect  of  his  legal  studies,  induced  his  fa- 
ther to  visit  Bologna,  to  snatch  him  from  the  seductive  influence 
of  poetry.  Petrarch,  on  the  arrival  of  his  father,  attempted  to 
conceal  his  favorite  manuscripts  of  Cicero,  Virgil  and  others; 
his  father,  however,  found  them  and  threw  them  into  the  fire, 
but  moved  by  the  distress  of  his  son,  he  saved  from  the  flames 
Virgil  and  Cicero,  which  he  presented  him,  saying,  "Take  them, 
my  son!  here  is  Virgil,  who  shall  console  you  for  what  you  have 
lost;  here  is  Cicero,  who  shall  prepare  you  for  the  study  of  the 
laws."'  After  this  Petrarch  endeavoured  to  gratify  the  wishes 
of  his  father,  but  he  was  unable  to  conquer  his  repugnance  to 
law.  **i 

Among  the  professors  at  Bologna  were  two  of  the  best  poets 
of  that  time.  One  was  Cicro  de  Pistoia,  the  other  Cicco  dc  As- 
coli.  The  former  was  professor  of  law ;  the  latter  of  philosophy 
and  astrology.  These  two  poets,  instead  of  opposing,  cultivated 
the  taste  of  Petrarch  for  poetry.  Cicco  de  Ascoli,  the  astrolo- 
ger, was  burnt  at  Florence  A.  D.  1327,  as  a  socerer,  by  the  tri- 
bunal of  the  inquisition. 

Jn  1325  Petrarch  lost  his  mother,  and  the  year  following,  hi? 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  3if 

father;  he  then  left  Bologna  with  his  brother  Gerard,  and  settled 
at  Avignon,  then  the  seat  of  the  Roman  Pontiff.  The  embar- 
rassed state  in  which  they  found  the  affairs  of  their  father,  in- 
duced the  brothers  to  embrace  the  ecclesiastical  profession.  Pe- 
trarch soon  became  distinguished  by  his  brilliant  talents  and  his 
studious  habits,  and  attracted  the  notice  of  John  of  Florence, 
canon  of  Pisa,  who  looked  upon  him  as  his  son,  assisted  him  with 
his  advice,  and  comforted  him  in  his  various  afflictions.  Here 
also  commenced  his  acquaintance  with  the  family  of  Colonna,  to 
whose  patronage  and  friendship  he  was  indebted  for  his  pros- 
perity in  after  life,  and  which  he  ever  remembered  with  grati- 
tude. This  friendship  commenced  with  James  Colonna,  a  young 
man  about  his  own  age,  who  studied  law  at  Bologna,  when  Pe- 
trarch was  dividing  his  time  between  law  and  poetry. 

The  year  1327  formed  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  Petrarch, 
and  that  ardent  passion  took  possession  of  him,  that  seems  to 
have  had  such  an  effect  upon  his  future  life.  It  was  in  that 
year  he  first  saw  Laura,  whose  charms  inspired  him  with  the 
most  romantic  ideas,  and  gave  life  and  inspiration  to  some  of 
the  most  sublime  flights  of  his  muse.  His  description  of  her 
person  and  appearance  is  such  as  none  but  a  poetic  fancy  could 
describe;  "her  face,  her  air,  her  gait,  were  something  more 
than  mortal.  Her  person  was  delicate,  her  eyes  tender  and 
sparkling,  and  her  eyebrows  black  as  ebony.  Golden  locks 
waved  over  her  shoulders,  whiter  than  snow ;  and  the  ringlets 
were  interwoven  with  the  fingers  of  love.  Her  neck  was  weH 
formed,  and  her  complexion  animated  by  the  tints  of  nature, 
which  art  vainly  attempts  to  imitate.  When  she  opened  her 
mouth,  you  perceived  the  beauty  of  pearls  and  the  sweetness  of 
roses.  She  was  full  of  graces.  Nothing  was  so  soft  as  her  look^ 
so  modest  as  her  carriage,  so  touching  as  the  sound  of  her  voice. 
An  air  of  gaiety  and  tenderness  breathed  around  her,  but  so 
pure  and  highly  tempered,  as  to  inspire  every  beholder  with 
sentiments  of  virtue ;  for  she  was  chaste  as  the  spangled  dew- 
drop  of  the  morn." 

Of  Laura  various  opinions  have  been  entertained,  as  well  as 
to  what  concerns  her  family  and  condition  in  life,  as  to  whether 
she  was  a  married  or  single  woman,  at  the  time  Petrarch  first 
saw  her.  Some,  indeed,  have  carried  their  scepticism  so  far  as 
ID  doubt  hop  very  existence,  as  they  have  doubted  that  of  Be- 


3 1  -J 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATI  III ,. 


atrice,  to  whom  the  sonnets  of  Dante  were  principally  address- 
ed, regarding  her  as  a  mere  creature  of  the  poet's  imagination. 
There  appears,  however,  no  good  reasons  for  such  a  supposition; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  every  reason  to  believe  she  was  a  real  per- 
son, and  the  wife  of  Hugues  de  Sade,  son  of  Paul,  one  of  the 
syndics  of  the  city  of  Avignon.  A  passion  such  as  that  which 
appears  to  have  influenced  Petrarch,  and  controlled  almost  eve- 
ry action  of  his  life,  cannot  be  defended  upon  any  principle  of 
morals,  when  we  remember  that  its  object  was  a  chaste  and 
virtuous  married  woman,  and  it  is  of  so  unusual  a  character,  that 
we  are  inclined  to  believe  there  was  more  of  affectation  than 
reality  in  it.  Be  it  real  or  affected,  to  this  devotion  to  Laura, 
the  world  is  indebted  for  those  poetic  effusions,  which  hav 
gained  him  so  great  a  reputation,  and  which  so  brilliantly  disti 
guished  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  The  poetry  of  Petrarc 
particularly  his  sonnets,  is  remarkable  for  its  elegant  and 
flowing  style,  and  its  purity  of  language.  The  greatest  fault  of 
his  sonnets  consists  in  too  much  of  sickly  whining  about  love 
and  Laura — a  too  frequent  recurrence  to  the  same  object,  and 
a  consequent  repetition  of  the  same  ideas.  The  image  of  Laura 
had  taken  such  firm  possession  of  his  mind,  that  long  after  he 
had  passed  the  meridian  of  life,  when  passion  is  usually  sobered 
into  reason,  he  declared  that  "she  appeared  in  every  object  and 
was  heard  in  every  breeze." 

The  bishopric  of  Lombes  becoming  vacant,  pope  John  XXII 
conferred  it  upon  James  Colonna,  the  friend  of  Petrarch.  The 
new  bishop,  when  about  to  take  possession  of  his  see,  invited 
Petrarch  to  accompany  him.  Lombes  is  situated  at  the  foot  of 
the  Pyrenees,  near  the  source  of  the  Garonne.  The  manners 
of  its  inhabitants  were  rude  and  uncultivated,  and  directly  op- 
posed to  the  refined  manners  of  Avignon.  Thither  the  bishop 
retired,  together  with  Petrarch  and  two  or  three  other  friends. 
Petrarch  accepted  the  invitation  as  well  from  inclination,  as 
from  a  disposition  to  comply  with  what  he  conceived  to  be  his 
duty  to  his  friend.  At  Lombes,  Petrarch  passed  the  summer 
and  autumn,  where  he  pursued  his  studies  with  unabated  ardor. 
He  was  much  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  literature  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  in  order  to  make  himself  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  works  of  her  poets,  orators  and  historians,  he  spared  neither 
pains  nor  expense  in  collecting  manuscripts.  The«  collection  of 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  313 

manuscripts  was  of  itself,  a  laborious  undertaking,  as  they  were 
so  scarce,  that  to  read  the  works  of  Cicero,  it  was  necessary  to 
travel  from  province  to  province,  some  books  being  preserved 
in  one,  and  some  in  another.  The  destruction  of  the  works  of 
ancient  writers,  who  had  shed  so  much  glory  on  their  country, 
wot  only  caused  the  deep  regrets  of  Petrarch,  but  excited  his 
indignation  even  against  the  innocent  descendants  of  the  barba- 

O  O 

rians,  whose  inroads  caused  this  destruction. 

Petrarch  travelled  through  France,  Germany  and  Italy,  where 
he  spent  some  time  in  informing  himself  of  the  manners,  customs 
and  institutions  of  those  countries  respectively,  and  in  examining 
the  public  and  private  libraries.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Avig- 
non, he  retired  to  Vaucluse,  a  romantic  retreat  about  fifteen 
miles  distant.  .  Here  he  remained  several  years,  devoting  him- 
self entirely  to  literary  pursuits,  and  the  collection  of  valuable 
manuscripts,  and  to  his  exertions  modern  literature  is  indebted 
for  the  preservation  of  many  valuable  remains  of  ancient  learn- 
ing, which,  had  they  fallen  into  other  hands,  might  never  have 
benefited  or  delighted  posterity.  In  this  retreat  he  composed 
some  of  his  most  valuable  works;  among  others  he  composed  a 
Latin  epic  poem,  entitled  "Africa,"  celebrating  the  glorious 
achievements  and  heroic  virtues  of  Scipio  Africanus,  the  con- 
queror of  Hannibal  and  Carthage.  On  this  epic  Petrarch  rested 
his  claims  to  immortality,  regarding  his  lighter  poems  as  pro- 
ductions which  would  soon  be  forgotten;  his  anticipations, how- 
ever, have  not  been  realized;  his  "Africa"  is  now  almost  forgot- 
ten, whilst  his  sonnets  constitute  the  chief  memorial  of  his  liter- 
ary fame. 

As  a  poet  Petrarch  attained  to  such  distinction,  that  on  the 
same  day  the  laureat's  crown  was  offered  him  by  the  senate  of 
Rome,  and  the  university  of  Paris.  After  consulting  his  friend 
Cardinal  Colonna,  he  determined  to  accept  the  dignity  of  poet 
laureat  from  the  Roman  senate,  and  be  crowned  in  the  capital  of 
the  Christian  world.  The  ceremony  took  place  in  April,  1341, 
and  is  thus  described:  "The  assembly  was  convoked  early  in  the 
morning  on  easter  day,  which  happened  to  be  very  serene,  and 
favorable  to  the  solemnity.  The  trumpets  sounded ;  the  people, 
eager  to  view  a  ceremony  which  had  been  discontinued  for  so 
many  years,  ran  in  crowds  to  behold  it.  The  streets  were 
siFewed  with  flowers,  and  the  windows  filled  with  ladies  dressed 

40 


q  ,A  HISTORY  OF  LITERATI  I-;  i 

in  the  most  sumptuous  manner,  who  sprinkled  as  much  perfumed 
w.iters  on  the  poet  as  would  serve  for  a  year  in  the  kingdom  of 
Spain.  Petrarch  appeared  at  last  in  the  capitol,  preceded  b\ 
twelve  young  men  in  scarlet  habits.  These  were  chosen  out  of 
the  first  families  of  Rome,  and  recited  his  verses;  while  h<  . 
adorned  with  the  robe  of  state  which  the  king  of  Naples  h;uf 
given  him,  followed,  in  the  midst  of  six  of  the  principal  citizens 
clothed  in  green,  with  crowns  of  flowers  on  their  heads;  after 
whom  came  the  senator,*  accompanied  by  the  first  men  of  the 
council.  When  he  was  seated  in  his  place,  Petrarch  made  a 
short  harangue  upon  a  verse  drawn  from  Virgil:  after  which, 
having  cried  three  times, 'Long  live  the  people  of  Rome!  Lonii 
live  the  Senator!  God  preserve  them  in  liberty!'  he  kneeled 
down  before  the  senator,  who,  after  a  short  discourse,  took  from 
his  head  a  crown  of  laurel,  and  put  it  upon  Petrarch's,  saying 
'This  crown  is  the  reward  of  merit.'  Then  Petrarch  recited 
a  fine  sonnet  on  the  heroes  of  Rome/'  When  the  ceremony  in 
the  capitol  was  ended,  Petrarch  was  conducted  with  the  same 
retinue  to  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  where,  after  a  solemn  mass, 
and  returning  thanks  to  God  for  the  honor  he  had  received,  he 
took  off  his  crown  to  place  it  among  the  offerings,  and  hung  it 
up  on  the  arch  of  the  temple.t  This  was  a  proud  and  glorious 
day  in  the  life  of  Petrarch,  as  no  individual  had  been  so  honored^ 
for  more  than  a  thousand  years. 

The  public  coronation  of  Petrarch  in  the  Roman  capitol,  with 
the  laureates  crown,  spread  his  fame  far  and  wide,  and  wherever 
he  travelled,  he  was  not  only  an  object  of  curiosity  to  the  idle, 
but  was  greeted  by  the  refined  and  polished  portion  of  society^ 
with  all  the  enthusiasm  that  genius  is  calculated  to  inspire. 
Among  the  numerous  instances  of  enthusiastic  devotion  which 
are  related,  we  will  mention  one.  A  schoolmaster  of  Pontromo- 

,  old  and  blind,  travelled  on  foot,  conducted  by  his  son,  from 
romoli  to  Naples,  from  Naples  to  Rome  and  from  Rome  to 
Parma,  for  the  sole  purpose,  as  he  said,  of  seeing  him,  and,  when 
introduced  to  Petrarch,  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  most  excessive 
transports.  He  remained  three  days  at  Parma,  following  him 
wherever  he  went,  listening  with  delight  to  every  word  that  fell 

<>,  count  of  Anguillara,  hrld  that  high  ofli  i  ,  i.rarch  arrived  at  I: 

•  Dob.«on'e  Life  of  Petrarch,  vol.  1.  book  III. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

trom  liis  lips     He  returned  to  his  home  highly  gratified,  with 
the  result  of  his  long  and  toilsome  journey. 

A  few  years  after  the  ceremony  we  have  described,  the  hap- 
piness of  Petrarch  received  a  severe  shock  in  the  death  of  Laura,  jp 
and  his  patron  and  friend  the  cardinal  Colonna,  \vhom-JieJJiu.- 
pathetically  laments  in  an  address  to  Death:  "Thou  hast  taken 
from  me  the  two  treasures  which  were  my  joy  and  my  confi- 
dence; that  stately  column  which  served  .me  for  support,  and 
that  green  laurel  under  whose  care  my  weary  soul  reposed! 
nothing  can  restore  to  me  what  I  have  lost.  What  remains  for 
me,  hut  to  bemoan,  all  my  future  days,  such  irreparable  losses? 
Our  life  is  like  the  shadow  of  the  sun  passing  over  the  plain. 
We  lose  in  one  moment  what  we  have  been  years  in  acquiring." 

Petrarch  lived  to  the  advanced  age  of  seventy  years,  enjoying 
the  friendship  of  the  most  illustrious  men  of  his  time.  His  death 
took  place  July  18th,  1374 — he  was  found  dead  in  his  library, 
one  arm  leaning  on  a  book.  His  death  caused  a  general  grief, 
and  throughout  Italy  was  heard  the  exclamation,  "the  father  of 
letters  is  no  more;  the  light  of  our  age  is  extinguished."  Peo- 
ple came  from  all  quarters,  to  do  honor  to  the  memory  of  him 
who  had  been  the  greatest  ornament  of  their  country,  since  the  i 
days  of  Augustus.  ^*- 

We  have  said  that  although  Petrarch  himself  rested  his  fame 
upon  his  poem  of  "Africa,"  he  is  remembered  only  for  his  sonnets, 
which  are  remarkable  for  delicacy  of  sentiment  and  elegance  of 
style.  For  these  powerful  evidences  of  transcendant  genius,  we 
are  indebted  to  his  real  or  affected  passion  for  Laura.  There  was 
nothing  low  or  grovelling  in  his  passion — ever  present  to  his 
thoughts,  she  inspired  him  with  the  most  delicate  and  refined 
ideas,  and  filled  his  imagination  with  the  most  pleasing  images. 

The  sonnet  has  ever  been  a  great  favorite  writh  the  Italians, 
particularly  since  the  time  of  Petrarch,  who  may  be  considered 
as  the  father  of  the  sonnet.  It  is  true  it  was  known  before  his 
time;  sonnets  were  composed  by  the  Provencal  and  Sicilian 
poets,  and  we  have  seen  that  Dante  sometimes  forgot  the  gloomy 
horrors  of  his  Inferno,  and  indited  sonnets  in  praise  of  Beatrice. 
Of  all  the  kinds  of  poetic  composition  in  which  poets  have  in- 
dulged, the  sonnet  is,  perhaps,  the  most  difficult,  being  confined 
to  a  certain  number  of  lines  or  verses — the  legitimate  mimbri 
being  fourteen.  It  is  "essentially  musical  and  essentially  founder1 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATI  K i 

• 

upon  the  harmony  of  sound,  from  which  its  name  is  derived, 
It  acts  upon  the  mind  rather  through  the  words  than  by  the 
thoughts.  The  richness  and  fulness  of  the  rhymes  constitute  a 
portion  of  its  grace,  and  the  return  of  the  same  sounds  makes  a 
more  powerful  impression,  in  proportion  to  their  repetition  and 
completeness."  The  peculiar  style  of  versification  employed 
in  the  sonnet,  is,  however,  rather  uripleasing  to  the  unpracticed 
ear,  but  when  once  it  becomes  familiar,  it  has  all  the  beauty 
and  harmony  of  the  most  polished  verse.  This  beauty  and  har- 
mony of  versification  in  the  sonnet  seems  particularly  to  belong 
to  the  Italian,  and  may  arise  from  the  peculiar  construction  of 
the  soft  and  sonorous  language  of  Tuscany,  which  is  better 
adapted  to  the  sonnet  than  any  other,  either  ancient  or  modern. 
In  the  English  and  French  sonnets,  there  is  evidently  much  more 
labor — there  appears  to-  be  a  constant  effort  and  exertion  to 
produce  effect,  unlike  the  easy  and  flowing  style  of  the  Italian. 
We  will  here  introduce  one  in  each  language  respectively,  that 
a  judgment  of  the  merits  of  each  may  be  formed.  The  first  is 
by  Petrarch,  and  is  one  of  those  exquisite  and  feeling  produc- 
tions, in  which  he  pours  forth  the  emotions  of  his  soul  on  the 
death  of  Laura : 

Gli  occhi,  di  ch'io  parlai  si  caldamenle, 

K  le  brarcia  et  le  niani,  e  i  piedi,  e'l  viso. 

Cbe  m'havean  si  da  me  stesso  diviso, 

E  fatto  singular  da  1 'ultra  gente; 
Le  crespe  chiome  d'  or  puro  lucente, 

E'l  lampeggiar  de  1'  angelico  riso, 

Che  solean  far  in  terra  un  paradise, 

Pocapolvere  son  che  nulla  sente. 
Ed  io  pur  vivo:  onde  mi  doglio  e  sdegno, 

Rimas  o  senza  '1  lume,  ch'  amai  tanto, 

In  gran  fortune,  e'n  disarmato  legno. 
Or  sia  qui  fine  al  mio  amoroso  canto: 

Secca  e  la  vena  de  1'  usato  ingegno, 

E  la  citera  mia  rivolta  in  pianto. 

The  following  is  from  the  pen  of  Maynard,  a  French  poet  oi 
considerable  reputation  in  the  age  of  Louis  XVI.  He  was  well 
known  as  a  writer  of  satires,  epigrams  and  sonnets,  which  were 
usually  written  in  a  style  of  great  purity  and  elegance.  Having 
addressed  some  verses  to  Cardinal  Richelieu,  in  a  style  of  court- 
ly flattery,  of  which  the  cardinal  took  no  notice,  Maynard  ad- 
dressed to  him  the  following  sonnet,  which  shews  that  if  he 


II [STORY  OF  LITERATURE.  jj^ 

could  employ  the  language  of  flattery,  when  it  suited  his  pur- 
poses, he  could  also  dart  with  some  effect,  the  arrow  of  satire. 

Par  votre  humeur  le  monde  est  gouverne: 

Vos  volontes  font  le  calme  et  1'orage; 
Et  vous  riez  de  me  voir  confine, 

Loin  de  la  cour,  dans  mon  petit  village 
ClSomedon,  raes  desirs  sont  contens, 

Je  trouvebeau  le  desert  oiij'habite, 
Et  connais  bien  qu'il  faut  ceder  au  temps, 

Fuir  1'eclat  et  devenirermite. 
Jesuisheureux  de  veiller  sans  emploi, 
De  me  cacher,  de  vivre  tout  a  moi, 

D'avoir  dompte  la  crainte  et  1'esperance;.; 
£t,  si  le  Ciel,  qui  me  traite  si  bien, 

Avait  pitie  de  vous  et  de  la  France, 
Votre  bonheur  serait  egal  au  mien. 
/• 

The  following  sonnet  on  the  departure  of  the  nightingale, 
breathes  such,  a  spirit  of  tenderness,  and  is  clothed  in  language 
of  so  much  beauty,  that  we  present  it  as  favorable  specimen  of 
English  sonnet  writing.  It  is  the  production  of  Mrs.  Charlotte 
vSmith,  a  highly  gifted  lady,  whose  sonnets  are  not  only  deserv- 
edly admired,  but  have  placed  her  at  the  head  of  English  poets* 
in  that  particular  species  of  composition: 

Sweet  poet  of  the  woods,  a  long  adieu! 

Farewell,  soft  minstrel  of  the  early  year! 
Ah !  't  will  be  long  e'er  thou  shalt  sing  anew, 

And  pour  thy  music  on  the  night's  dull  ear. 
Whether  on  Spring  thy  wandering  flights  await, 

Or  whether  silent  in  our  groves  you  dwell, 
The  pensive  muse  shall  own  thee  for  her  mate, 

And  still  protect  the  song  she  loves  so  well. 
With  cautious  step,  the  love-born  youth  shall  glide 

i Thro'  the  lone  brake  that  sheds  thy  mossy  nest; 
And  shepherd  girls,  from  eyes  profane,  shall  hide 

The  gentle  bird,  who  sings  of  pity  best: 
For  still  thy  voice  shall  soft  affections  move, 
And  still  be  dear  to  sorrow  and  to  love ! 

In  the  foregoing  examples  of  the  Italian,  French  and  English 
sonnets,  there  is  a  manifest  difference — the  most  striking,  per- 
haps, is  the  number  of  verses  in  the  Italian  of  similar  termina- 
tions, which  are  thought  to  constitute  their  chief  beauty.  This 
peculiarity  arises  from  the  fact,  that  in  the  Italian  language, 
almost  all  the  syllables  are  simple,  and  formed  from  a  few  letters^ 
so  that  it  has  a  greater  number  of  words  of  similar  terminations. 


HISTORY  OK  LITERATURE. 

As  Me  remarked  above,  although  Petrarch  himself  rested  hi- 
hopes  of  future  fame  upon  his  "Africa"  and  his  other  Latin 
works,  on  which  tie  bestowed  much  time  and  labor,  his  sonnets 
at  the  present  day  constitute  the  chief  memorial  of  his  fame. 
O ;i  these  elegant  productions  he  bestowed  much  care,  and 
never  suffered  one  to  appear  unless  it  reached  his  standard  of 
criticism.  He  had  in  view  in  his  Italian  verses,  a  continuation 
of  that  improvement  of  the  language  which  had  been  begun  by 
Dante,  and  in  consequence  of  his  efforts  and  those  of  his  con- 
temporary Boccacio,  it  attained  the  standard  of  perfection.  By 
the  care  of  these  learned  and  distinguished  men — these  brilliant 
lights  of  the  fourteenth  century,  "more  exact  rules  were  intro- 
duced; a  crowd  of  barbarous  words  were  rejected;  the  nobler 
were  separated  from  the  more  vulgar  expressions;  the  latter 
were  excluded  forever  from  the  language  of  verse,  and  poetry 
became  more  elegant,  more  melodious  and  more  pleasing  to  the 
oar  of  ta«te." 

The  greater  number  of  the  sonnets  of  Petrarch  composed  du- 
ring the  lifetime  of  Laura,  arc  addressed  directly  to  her  in  praise 
of  her  beauty  and  virtue,  and  those  high  qualities  of  mind  and 
person  which  his  glowing  fancy  pictured,  and  those  written  af- 
ter her  death,  have  continual  allusions  to  the  loss  he  had  sus- 
tained. The  following  beautiful  sonnet  was  written  by  Petrarch 
after  Laura  was  considerably  advanced  in  life,  and  her  beauty 
began  to  fade.  It  shows  with  what  fervency  the  poet  loved,  or 
fancied  he  loved,  and  how  much  his  thoughts  dwelt  upon  tin- 
object  of  his  affections. 

Waved  to  the  winds  were  those  long  locks  of  gold, 

Which  in  a  thousand  burnish'd  ringlets  flow'd, 

And  the  sweet  light,  beyond  all  measure, glow'd, 
*    Of  those  fair  eyes,  which  I  no  more  behold; 
i\ur  (so  it  seem'd)  that  face,  ought  harsh  or  cold 

To  me  (if  true  or  false,  I  know  not)  show'd: 

Me,  in  whose  breast  the  amorous  lure  abode, 
it  ilanies  consum'd,  what  marvel  to  unfold? 
That  step  of  hers  was  of  no  mortal  guise, 

But  of  angelic  nature,  and  her  tongue 

Had  other  utterance  than  of  human  sounds: 
A  living  sun,  a  spirit  of  the  skies, 

I  saw  htr — now,  perhaps,  not  so. — But  wounds 

Heal  not,  for  that  the  bow  is  since  unstrung. 

Roscoc. 


With  the  following  sonnet  in  which  the  writer  repents  having 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  319 

'"   missapplied  in  his  youth  the  talents  with  which  he  was  .gifted, 
we  will  conclude  our  notice  of  Petrarch. 

Still  do  I  weep  the  days  that  are  gone  by, 

When  sublunary  things  my  fondness  sway'd, 

And  no  bold  flight,  though haviyg  wings,!  made. 

Haply  to  give  me  examples  high. 
Then,  who  my  impious,  foul  misdeeds  dost  spy, 

Dread  Lord  of  heaven  immortal,  viewless!  aid 

T-he  soul  that's  frail,  that  has  from  duty  stray'd: 

And  its  defect  O  let  thy  grace  supply ! 
Thus  if  life's  warfare,  and  its  storm  I  prov'd, 

Peace,  and  a  harbour  may  in  death  be  mine: 

Though  vain  my  stay,  I'll  worthily  depart. 
For  that  short  period  ere  I'm  hence  remov'd, 

And  at  the  last,  extend  thy  hand  divine: 

Thou  know'st,  that  thou  alone  giv'st  hope  unto  my  heart. 

Anon. 

Contemporary  with  Petrarch  was  the  celebrated  Italian  poet 
and  novelist  Boccacio,  who  was  born  at  Certaldo  in  Tuscany, 
A.  D.  1313,  from  which  circumstance  he  is  sometimes  called 
John  of  Certaldo.  He  was  placed  early  in  life  with  a  merchant 
of  Florence,  with  the  view  of  being  educated  to  mercantile  pur- 
suits, but  his  taste  for  poetry  and  belles  letters,  getting  the  bet- 
ter of  his  desire  for  gain,  he  was  dismissed  from  his  employment 
for  negligence.  He  then  began  the  study  of  the  canon  law, 
with  a  view  to  ecclesiastical  preferment,  but  here  again  his 
taste  for  elegant  literature  prevailed,  and  after  making  several 
attempts  in  other  pursuits,  the  chief  end  of  which  was  money, 
with  the  consent  of  his  father  he  determined  to  devote  himself  to 
the  cultivation  of  literature.  About  this  time  a  favorable  op- 
portunity presented  itself  of  acquiring  the  Greek  language,  the 
knowledge  of  which  was  then  confined  to  very  few,  not  more  it- 
is  said  than  half  a  dozen  persons  in  Italy,  being  acquainted  with 
,  even  its  rudiments.  Boccacio  acquired  a  sufficient  knowledge 
of  the  language,  to  enable  him  to  relish  its  beauties,  and  in  or- 
der to  make  himself  acquainted  with  all  the  learning  of  the  times, 
he  fixed  his  residence  for  a  time  at  Naples,  where  learning  flour- 
ished under  the  patronage  of  king  Robert.  After  spending  sev- 
eral years  at  Naples  he  returned  to  Florence,  where  he  remain- 
ed but  a  short  time,  in  consequence  of  the  troubles  inAvhich  that 
city  was  involved,  by  the  strife  of  opposing  partio?.  He  spent 
several  years  in  visiting  different  parts  of  Italy,  until  tranquility 
WHS  restored,  when  he  returned  fn  his  n:Hiv  r ->nntry.  After  his 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURL. 

jp 

return  to  .Florence  he  filled  several  public  offices,  and  was  ap- 
pointed the  first  lecturer  on  the  Divina  Comedia  of  Dante.  He 
died  at  Cataldo  on  the  2  st  December  1375,  in  the  sixty  second 
year  of  his  age. 

To  Dante,  Petrarch  and  Boccacio,  Italian  literature  is  indebt- 
ed for  its  fame  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  to  them  the  Italian 
language  owes  its  refinement;  indeed,  they  may  be  said  to  have 
fixed  the  language,  and  may  be  considered  the  fathers  of  learn- 
ing and  literary  taste  in  modern  times.  In  thi«  illustrious  trium- 
virate of  genius  and  learning  Boccacio  occupies  a  distinguish- 
ed place.  He  was  the  author  of  many  works  in  prose  and  po- 
etry, but  after  having  read  the  sonnets  of  Petrarch,  he  is  said  to 
have  become  so  dissatisfied  with  his  own,  that  he  committed  them 
to  the  flames.  As  Dante  had  his  Beatrice,  and  Petrarch  his 
Laura,  so  had  Boccacio  his  Famietta,  under  which  name  he  cel- 
ebrated Maria,  the  natural  daughter  of  Robert,  king  of  Naples. 
Most  of  his  sonnets  were  addressed  to  Maria  under  the  name  of 
Famietta,  who  was  the  wife  of  a  distinguished  nobleman  of  the 
court  of  Robert.  The  intercourse  between  Boccacio  and  this 
lady,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  of  that  pure  and  platonic 
character,  that  distinguished  the  love  of  Petrarch.  Brought  up 
in  a  corrupt  court,  she  had  but  little  delicacy  of  sentiment,  and 
returned  the  past-ion  of  Boccacio  in  a  manner  not  entirely  con- 
sistent with  the  character  of  a  wife. 

The  most  celebrated  of  his  works,  and  that  to  which  he  is 
mainly  indebted  for  his  fame,  is  the  Decameron,  a  collection  of 
tales  or  novels,  supposed  to  have  been  recited  by  a  party  of  gen- 
tlemen and  ladies,  who  had  retired  to  the  country  in  the  year 
1348,  when  a  dreadful  pestilence  infected  the  city.  It  was  a- 
grced  that  each  person,  during  the  space  of  ten  days,  should 
narrate  daily,  a  fresh  story,  and  as  the  company  consisted  of 
ten  persons,  the  number  of  stories  amounted  to  one  hundred. 
In  these  stories  the  manners  of  the  times  are  brought  to  view, 
and  illustrated  by  the  skill  with  which  he  describes  the  customs 
of  society.  He  lashes  with  great  severity  the  absurdities  and 
corruptions  of  the  church,  while  the  priests  and  monks  are  held 
up  to  ridicule  and  contempt.  Being  perfectly  acquainted  with 
their  numerous  vices,  and  the  profligacy  of  their  lives,  he  let  no 
opportunity  escape  of  exposing  them  in  their  true  colors.  In 
•n-<ler  that  our  rcadeus  who  are  not  in  possession  of  the  work  itr 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 


321 


, 


elf,  may  form  some  idea  of  the  style  and  manner  of  Boccacio  as 
a  moralist,  we  present  one  of  his  stories,  in  which  "a  plain  hon- 
est man,  by  a  jest  accidentally  let  fall,  very  wittily  reproves  the 
hypocricy  of  the  clergy."  The  lady  by  whom  it  is  related,  after 
a,  few  preparatory  remarks,  continues: 

"There  was,  not  long  since,  in  our  city,  a  friar  belonging  to 
the  inquisition,  who,  though  he  laboured  much  to  appear  righte- 
ous and  zealous  for  the  Christian  faith,  yet  was  he  a  much  better 
inquisitor  after  such  as  had  full  purses,  than  those  who  held 
heterodox  opinions.  By  which  great  care  of  his,  he  soon  found 
out  a  person  better  stored  with  money  than  sense." 

"This  man,  not  so  much  out  of  profaneness  as  want  of  thought, 
and  perhaps  overheated  with  liquor  into  the  bargain,  unluckily 
said  to  one  of  his  companions,  that  he  had  better  wine  than 
Christ  himself  had  ever  drank;  which  being  reported  to  the  in- 
quisitor, and  he  understanding  the  man's  estate  was  large,  and 
that  he  was  full  of  money,  sent  all  his  myrmidons,  had  him  seized 
and  commenced  a  process,  not  so  much  with  a  design  of  award- 
ing him  in  matters  of  faith,  as  to  ease  him  of  part  of  his  money, 
as  he  soon  did." 

"The  man  being  brought  before  him,  he  inquired  whether  it 
was  true  what  had  been  alleged  against  him;  and  the  poor  man 
immediately  answered,  that  it  was  and  told  him  in  what  manner 
the  words  were  spoken.  To  whom  the  most  holy  inquisitor  (de- 
voted to  St.  John  with  the  golden  beard)  replied:  "What!  dost 
thou  make  Christ  a  drunkard,  and  curious  in  the  choice  of  wines, 
like  your  common  sots  and  frequenters  of  taverns?  and  now 
wouldst  excuse  it  as  a  small  matter?  And  so  it  may  seem  to 
thee;  but  I  tell  thee,  should  I  proceed  with  the  rigor  of  justice^ 
thou  wouldst  be  burnt  alive  for  it."  With  these  and  such  like 
words,  as  if  he  had  to  do  with  a  downright  atheist,  he  so  terrifi- 
ed the  poor  wretch,  that  he  was  forced  to  have  recourse  to  a 
little  of  St.  John's  golden  grease  (a  most  sovereign  remedy  a- 
gainst  the  pestilential  avarice  of  the  clergy,  especially  of  the  les- 
ser friars,  who  are  forbidden  the  use  of  money,  although  it  be 
not  mentioned  by  Galen  in  his  book  of  medicines,)  with  which 
he  anointed  his  hands  to  such  purpose,  that  the  fire  and  fagot 
with  which  he  had  been  threatened,  were  changed  into  a  cross; 
which,  being  yellow  and  black,  seemed  like  a  banner  designed 
for  the  holy  land.  The  money  being  paid,  he  was  to  stay  there 

41 


322  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

for  some  time,  being  ordered,  by  way  of  penance,  to  hear 
of  the  holy  cross  every  morning,  to  visit  him  also  at  dinner  time, 
and  to  do  nothing  the  rest  of  the  day  but  what  he  commanded; 
all  which  he  performed  punctually:  and  one  morning  it  happen- 
ed, that  during  mass,  the  gospel  was  read,  wherein  were  these 
words;  "you  shall  receive  an  hundred  for  one,  and  so  possess 
eternal  life,"  which  lie  kept  thoroughly  in  his  mind,  and  being 
come,  at  dinner  time,  the  inquisitor  asked  him,  whether  he  had 
heard  mass  that  morning.     "Yes,  sir,"'  replied  the  man  very  rea- 
dily.    "Hast  thou  heard  any  thing  therein/'  quoth  the  inquisitor, 
"wherein  thou  art  doubtful,  or  desirous  to  ask  any  questions?" 
-No,  surely,"  said  the  honest  man,  "and  believe  all  that  I  have 
heard  most  steadfastly;  only  one  thing  I  remember,  which  occa- 
sions great  pity  in  me,  for  you  and  the  rest  of  the  brethren,  as  to 
what  will  become  of  you  in  the  other  world."     "And  what  arc 
those   words,"  replied  the  other,  "which  make  you  pity  us  si- 
much?"    "O   good  sir,"   said  the  man,  "do  you  remember  the 
words  of  the   gospel,    you  shall   receive   a  hundred   for  onef 
"Well,  what  of  them?"  quoth  the  inquisitor.   "1  will  tell  you,  sir" 
continued  he:  "ever  since  I  have  been  here,  I  have  seen  some- 
times one,  and  sometimes  two  great  chaldrons  of  broth,  given  out 
of  your  great  abundance  every  day  to  the  poor,  after  you  and 
your  brethren  have  been  sufficiently  regaled;  and  now,  if  for  ev 
cry  one  of  these  you  arc  to  receive  an  hundred,  you  will  all  1>< 
drowned  in  broth!"     This  set  the  whole  Cable  a  laughing,  and 
the  inquisitor  wras  quite  confounded,  knowing  it  to  be  a  satire 
upon  their  great  hypocricy;  and  were  it  not  that  he  had  been 
much  blamed  for  his  former  prosecution,  he  would  have  given 
him  more  trouble:  he  ordered  him,  therefore,  in  a  rage,  to  go 
about  his  business,  and  to  come  near  him  no  more." 

Boccacio  was  the  author  of  many  other  works  in  Italian,  be- 
fcidcs  the  Decameron,  amongst  which  is  a  romance  entitled  "Fa- 
mietta,"  in  which  a  noble  lady  of  Naples,  relates  her  adventures; 
also  another  entitled  "Filocopo,"  formed  upon  the  model  of  thr 
romances  so  captivating  when  chivalry  was  at  its  height.  These 
two  romances,  although  possessing  considerable  merit  are  en- 
tirely overshadowed  by  the  celebrity  of  the  Decameron.  He 
was  the  author  also  of  two  epic  poems,  neither  of  which  obtain- 
ed any  great  reputation  in  their  day,  and  are  now  nearly  forgot- 
ten. They  are  written  in  ottarima-,  or  stanza  of  eight  lines,  of 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  333 

which  he  was  the  inventor.  His  Latin  compositions  were  also 
numerous,  and  some  of  them  useful  and  interesting — he  wrote  in 
Latin  an  abridgment  of  the  Roman  history  from  Romulus  to  the 
year  of  Rome  724,  with  a  parallel  of  the  seven  kings  of  Rome. 

To  Boccacio  was  Italy  principally  indebted  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language.  In  1360,  Leontius 
Pilatus,  a  distinguised  Greek  scholar  arrived  at  Venice,  where 
Boccacio  then  was,  on  his  way  to  Avignon.  Boccacio  sought  his 
friendship  and  prevailed  on  him  to  settle  at  Florence,  where  by 
his  influence  the  Florentine  government  founded  a  professorship 
of  the  Greek  language  and  literature.  Boccacio  himself,  al- 
though at  that  time  forty-seven  years  of  age,  became  one  of  his 
scholars,  and  under  his  instructions  studied  the  works  of  Ho- 
mer, and  afterwards  in  conjunction  with  him  translated  the  Illiad 
and  Odyssey  into  Latin,  by  which  means  the  west  obtained  a 
better  knowledge  of  Homer  than  they  previously  possessed. 
Leontius  remained  at  Florence  four  years,  when  he  determined 
to  visit  his  native  land,  notwithstanding  the  earnest  solicitations 
of  his  scholars  that  he  should  not  leave  them.  On  his  arrival  in 
Greece,  finding  it  almost  desolated  by  the  Turks,  and  his  coun- 
trymen enduring  the  heaviest  calamities,  he  set  sail  for  Italy, 
but  the  vessel  being  overtaken  by  a  violent  tempest,  Leontius 
seized  hold  of  a  mast,  and  was  unfortunately  killed  by  lightning. 
In  the  death  of  this  man  literature  sustained  a  heavy  loss.  Boc- 
cacio was  not  a  little  proud  of  his  efforts  in  the  cause  of  Greek 
literature,  and  in  his  treatise  on  the  "Genealogy  of  the  Gods," 
he  says  that  it  was  by  his  advice  that  Leontius  was  induced  to 
turn  from  the  Babylon  of  the  west,  and  settle  in  Florence — that 
he  received  him  into  his  house,  where  he  long  enjoyed  his  hos- 
pitality— that  he  labored  with  all  the  zeal  of  friendship  to  pro- 
cure his  admission  among  the  doctors  of  the  Florentine  academy, 
and  that  he  obtained  for  him  a  salary  from  the  public  treasury. 
The  friendship  of  Beccacio  for  Leontius  and  the  zeal  with  which 
he  promoted  his  interests,  affords  sufficient  evidence  if  any  were 
wanting,  of  his  devotion  to  the  cause  of  learning.  Indeed,  suc- 
ceeding ages  are  more  indebted  to  Boccacio  and  his  illustrious 
contemporary  Petrarch,  than  is  generally  known.  They  fell 
such  admiration  for  the  history,  poetry  and  philosophy  of  an 
cient  Greece  and  Rome,  that  they  incurred  great  expense  in 
their  search  after  ancient  manuscripts,  and  devoted  their  liv< 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

the  study  of  such  as  were  recovered  from  the  dust  of  ages.  N1- 
oublions  pas  vous-memes  ces  obligations,"  says  Sismondi,  "et 
rendons  grace  a  Boccace,  a  1'universite,  a  la  r6publique  Floren- 
tine, de  ce  que  les  livres  d'Homere  sont  parvenus jusqu'a  nous; 
de  ce  que  la  langue  du  pere  despoetes  est  devenue  familiere 
dans  notre  Europe;  de  ce  qu'enfin  les  vertus  et  les  monumens 
de  1'antiquite,  le  patriotisme  de  Sparte  et  les  artes  d'Athenes, 
1'eloquence,  la  poesie,  la  philosophic,  le  souvenir  de  la  liberte 
et  de  la  granduer  d'ame  des  Grecs,  sont  restes  a  notre  port6e, 
et  peuvent  encore  Clever  notre  ame,  former  notre  genie,  on 
^chauffer  notre  cceur."* 

At  this  time  also  lived  Geoffrey  Chaucer  and  John  Gower,  En- 
glish  poets  of  great  celebrity.  Chaucer,  who  is  called  "the  morn- 
ing star  of  English  poetry ,J>  was  born  in  London  in  the  year  1 328. 
Of  his  early  years  but  little  is  known  with  certainty.  He  ap- 
pears, however,  to  have  attracted  the  notice  of  Edward  III,  by 
whom  he  was  appointed  comptroller  of  the  customs  of  wool,  and 
it  also  appears  that  he  accompanied  his  warlike  sovereign  in  his 
invasion  of  France  A.  D.  1359.  He  afterwards  received  a  pen- 
sion from  the  king  of  twenty  marks  per  annum,  equal  to  two  or 
three  hundred  pounds  of  modern  money,  but  what  particular  ser- 
vice occasioned  this  exertion  of  royal  bounty  does  not  clearly 
appear.  Chaucer  also  attracted  the  notice  of  John  of  Gaunt, 
duke  of  Lancaster,  whose  ambition  induced  him  to  court  the  as- 
sistance of  learned  men,  and  to  purchase  that  of  Chaucer  by 
many  offices  of  favor  and  friendship.  Chaucer  married  Phil- 
ippa,  the  sister  of  Catharine  Rouet,  one  of  the  duke's  favorites, 
after  which  the  duke  used  his  influence  in  promoting  his  inter- 
ests. He  procured  him  the  appointment  of  Scutifer,  or  shield- 
bearer  to  the  king,  and  subsequently  that  of  ambassador  to  Ge- 
noa. Having  discharged  his  duty  in  his  embassy  to  Genoa  with 
fidelity,  he  was  sent  with  two  others  on  a  mission  to  France,  for 
the  purpose  of  negotiating  a  marriage  betwen  a  daughter  of  the 
French  king,  and  Richard,  prince  of  Wales. 

Chaucer  was  one  of  the  followers  of  Wickliffe,  and  in  conse- 
quence was  obliged  to  fly  his  country  and  seek  refuge  in  Francee 
He  remained  abroad  until  he  thought  the  storm  had  blown  over, 
when  he  returned  to  England.  He  was,  however,  seized  and 
sent  to  the  tower,  where  he  continued  in  confinement  until  he 
consented  to  disclose  all  he  knew  of  the  designs  of  the  Wick 

*  Sismondi.  Hist,  des  Rep.  Ital.  tome  f>.  IB? 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  ^ 

liffites,  and  of  the  disturbances  that  took  place  when  John  Com- 
berton,  a  noted  follower  of  Wickliffe,  was  proposed,  a  second 
time,  for  lord  mayor  of  London.  Notwithstanding  his  treason 
to  his  friends,  he  was  deprived  of  his  revenues,  and  retired  to 
Woodstock,  where  he  composed  his  "Canterbury  Tales,"  or  at 
least  begun  them.  In  1389,  by  the  influence  of  the  duke  of 
Lancaster,  he  was  restored  to  royal  favor,  and  an  annuity  of  forty 
marks.  He  died  25th  October,  1400,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

Before  the  time  of  Chaucer,  poetry  was  in  a  very  rude  state 
in  England,  scarcely  deserving  the  name.  "He  is  called  the  fa- 
ther of  English  poetry,  not  because  he  was  the  first  Englishman 
who  wrote  in  verse,  but  because  he  was  the  first  who  wrote  po- 
etically. Extensive  learning  and  minute  detail  were,  in  his  time, 
the  qualities  which  entitled  a  writer  to  fame;  and  it  was  the 
fashion  to  write  very  long  and  very  profound  treatises  in  verse* 
There  was  no  distinction  between  the  rules  of  poetry  and  those 
of  history;  and  writers,  instead  of  attempting  flights  of  the  im- 
agination endeavored  to  give  a  faithful  enumeration  of  particu- 
lars. Chaucer  was  the  first  to  emancipate  himself  from  this  ser- 
vility, but  even  he  did  not  completely  emancipate  himself."*  His 
earliest  production,  entitled  the  "Court  of  Love,"  was  written 
when  he  was  about  eighteen  years  of  age.  It  is  an  allegorical 
poem,  in  which  the  poet  supposes  himself  summoned  to  the  court 
of  love  on  Mount  Citheron — he  is  there  introduced  to  a  mistress, 
and  sworn  to  observe  the  twenty  statutes  of  the  God,  some  of 
which  he  objects  to  on  account  of  his  inability  to  perform  them. 
Whatever  merit  this  and  the  other  poems  of  Chaucer,  may  poss- 
ess, it  is  difficult  to  discover,  because  of  the  obsolete  and  almost 
unintelligible  language  in  which  they  are  composed.  The  fol- 
lowing description  of  the  life  of  lovers  is  from  the  "Court  of 
Love:" 

This  is  the  life  ofjoy  that  we  ben  in, 
Resembling  life  of  heavenly  paradise ; 
Love  is  the  elixir  aye  of  life  and  sin, 
Love  maketh  hertis  lustie  to  devise. 
Honor  and  grace  have  they  in  every  wise, 
That  ben  to  lov  is  law  obedient, 
Love  maketh  folke  benigne  and  diligent. 
Aye  styning  them  to  dread  in  vice  and  shams ; 

*  Life  of  Chaucer  by  Saaford. 


32G  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

In  their  degree  it  niakith  them  honorable, 
And  sweet  it  is  of  love  to  hear  the  name. 
So  that  his  love  be  faithful,  true  and  stable. 

His  most  celebrated  work,  that  upon  which  his  fame  chiefly 
rests,  is  his  "Canterbury  Tales."  The  plan  of  this  work  is  bor- 
rowed from  the  Decameron  of  Boccacio,  and  is  simply  this ;  a 
number  of  travellers  are  going  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Canterbury, 
and  who  agree,in  order  to  beguile  the  tediousness  of  the  journey, 
to  tell  stories  on  the  way,  with  an  agreement,  that  the  one  who 
tells  the  best  story  should  have  a  supper  at  the  common  expense 
on  his  return.  The  prologue  describes  the  different  characters 
who  had  determined  to  journey  together; 

Of  sundry  folk,  by  adventure  yfalle 

In  felawship,  and  pilgrimes  were  they  alte, 

That  toward  Canterbury  wolden  ride. 

This  company  embraces  the  different  grades  into  which  societ} 
was  then  divided,  and  each  is  minutely  described.  Of  his  man- 
ner take  the  following  description  of  the  knight: 

A  knight  there  was,  and  that  a  worthy  man, 

That  fro  the  time  that  he  firste  began 

To  riden  out, he  loved  chivalrie, 

Trouthe  and  honor,  fredom  and  curtesie. 

Ful  worth}-  was  be  in  his  lordes  werre, 

And  thereto  had  he  ridden,  no  man  ferre, 

As  well  in  christindom  as  in  Hethenesse, 

And  ever  honored  for  his  worthinesse. 

At  Alisandre  he  was  when  it  was  wonnt. 

Ful  often  time  he  had  the  borde  begonnt 

Above  all  nations  in  Pruce, 

In  Lettowe  hadde  he  reysed  and  in  Ruce. 

No  christen  man  so  ofte  of  his  degree, 

In  Gernade  at  the  siege  eke  hadde  he  be 

Of  Algesir,  and  ridden  in  Belmarie, 

At  Leyes  was  he,  and  at  Satalie, 

When  they  were  wonne ;  and  in  the  Crete  set 

At  many  a  noble  armee  had  he  be, 

At  mortale  battailles  hadde  he  been  fiftene, 

And  foughten  for  our  faith  at  Trauiissene 

In  listesthries,and  ay  slain  his  fo. 

We  have  given  the  foregoing  extracts  from  Chaucer,  in  order 
that  our  readers  may  form  some  idea  of  the  style  and  manner 
of  the  oldest  English  poet,  and  of  the  language  in  which  he 
wrote.  Although  he  has  been  called  the  "architect  of  English 
versification,"  it  may  be  said  that  his  beauties  "may  be  compared 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  337 

to  flowefs  which  we  collect  in  a  long  journey,  numerous  in  the 
sum,  but  collected  widely  asunder,"  and  that  in  his  works,  "al- 
though there  is  much  to  reward  the  patience  of  the  reader,  there 
js  also  something  to  exercise  it." 

John  Gower  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Chaucer,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  born  a  short  time  before  him,  but  in  what 
part  of  the  island  of  Britain  is  uncertain,  for  while  one  antiquary 
asserts  that  he  was  born  in  Kent,  another  says  he  was  born  in 
Wales.  Gower  wrote  several  works  in  Latin,  among  others  one 
entitled  "Vox  Clamantis"  in  which  he  gives  an  account  of  a 
popular  insurrection  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  As  Petrarch 
rested  his  fame  on  his  "Africa,"  so  did  Gower  think  that  he  had 
established  a  solid  claim  to  immortality  by  his  "Vox  Clamantis," 
but  it  is  his  "Confessio  Amantis,"  writtenin  his  native  language, 
that  has  the  highest  claims,  and  entitles  its  author  to  rank  among 
English  poets.  It  is  said  to  have  been  written  at  the  request  of 
Richard  II.  "The  general  subject  of  this  poem  is  love,  but  the 
author  has  contrived  to  write  about  almost  every  thing  else. 
Nearly  all  the  ancient  literature  and  mythology  are  interwoven 
with  what  is  called  the  confession  of  a  lover;  and  it  would,  at 
first  sight,  appear  really  astonishing,  that,  at  a  time  when  books 
could  only  be  multiplied  by  transcription,  an  author  should  think 
of  drawing  out  such  an  endless  string  of  verse  upon  so  trite  a 
series  of  subjects."  Although  Gower  possessed  considerable 
talent  in  the  art  of  versification,  he  falls  short  of  his  countryman 
and  contemporary  Chaucer.  His  subjects  are  not  managed 
with  the  same  skill,  and  being  more  tedious  and  prolix  in  their 
details,  are  frequently  dull  and  uninteresting,  even  to  those  to 
whom  his  obsolete  language  is  perfectly  familiar.  Of  his  style 
and  manner,  the  following  extract  on  "detraction,"  will  afford  a 
sufficient  specimen.  It  is  taken  from  his  poem  "Confessio  A- 
mantis :" 

Touchend  as  of  enu'rous  brood 

Iwotenot  one  of  all  goad. 

Butnetheless  such  as  thei  bee 

Yet  there  is  one  and  that  is  hee, 

Which  cleped  is  Detraction, 

And  to  confirme  his  action, 

He  bath  withholde  Malebouche, 

Whose  tongue  nother  pill  ne  crouche 

Maie  hire,  so  that  he  pronounce 

A  ploine  good  worde  without  frounce. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

\Vhere  behynde  a  man's  back 

For  though  he  preise,  he  fint  some  lackc, 

Which  of  his  tale  is  ay  the  laste, 

That  all  the  price  shall  ouercaste. 

And  though  there  be  no  cause  why : 

Yet  woll  he  iangle,  not  for  thy 

As  he  whiche  hath  the  herauldie 

Of  hem,  that  vsen  for  to  lie.    . 

Among  the  poets  of  the  period  under  review,  we  cannot  m 
justice,  omit  mentioning  James  I,  king  of  Scotland,  the  most 
learned  and  accomplished  prince  of  the  age.  He  was  the  son 
of  Robert  III,  king  of  Scotland,  who  intended  that  he  should' b( 
educated  at  the  court  of  France,  then  closely  united  with  that  oi 
Scotland  by  political  ties.  For  that  purpose  he  set  sail  from 
Scotland  for  France,  but  was  unfortunately  taken  and  carried 
to  England,  where  he  was  unjustly  detained  a  prisoner  by  Hen- 
ry IV  and  Henry  V,  for  thirteen  years.  This  event  happened 
in  the  year  1405,  when  James  was  about  thirteen  years  of  age. 
He  was  first  confined  in  the  Tower,  then  in  the  castle  of  Notting- 
ham, and  subsequently  in  the  castle  of  Windsor.  The  English 
monarchs  made  some  amends  for  their  injustice  by  causing  him 
to  be  instructed  in  the  learning  of  the  times,  and  employed  for 
that  purpose  the  best  teachers  in  all  the  arts  and  sciences.  In 
his  confinement  his  greatest  pleasure  was  derived  from  books, 
and  he  applied  himself  with  so  much  diligence  to  his  studies, 
that  when  released  from  captivity,  he  was  the  most  learned  man 
of  his  age.  He  was  a  universal  scholar — a  perfect  master  of 
grammar,  rhetoric,  poetry,  music,  natural  philosophy,  and  was 
skilled  in  divinity  and  law.  With  such  varied  accomplishments, 
and  superior  talents,  had  his  lot  been  cast  in  happier  times,  he 
would  have  adorned  the  throne  of  his  fathers;  he  would  have- 
softened  the  rugged  features  of  his  native  land,  and  became  one 
of  its  greatest  benefactors.  But,  his  acquirements  were  in  ad- 
vance of  his  country,  and  in  his  attempts  to  ameliorate  the  con- 
dition of  his  subjects  by  restraining  the  power  of  the  nobles,  he 
became  their  victim.  "It  was  the  misfortune  of  James,"  says 
the  celebrated  historian  of  Scotland,  "that  his  maxims  and  man- 
ners were  too  refined  for  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  Happy! 
had  he  reigned  in  a  kingdom  more  civilized;  his  love  of  peace, 
of  justice,  and  of  elegance,  would  have  rendered  his  schemes 
successful;  and,^hstead  of  perishing,  because  he  attempted  too 


. 

HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE,  339 

much,  a  grateful  people  would  have  applauded  and  seconded  his 
efforts  to  reform  and  improve  them."* 

During  his  confinement  in  England,  James  composed  many 
poems,  nearly  all  of  which  have  been  lost.  From  a  perusal  of 
those  that  remain,  it  will  be  seen  that  he  possessed  the  true  spirit 
of  poetry,  and  the  inspiration  of  genius.  This  poetic  talent 
served  to  relieve  the  ennui  of  his  confinement,  during  which  he 
composed  a  poem  entitled  the  "King's  Quair,"  in  which  he  fre- 
quently bewails  his  unhappy  fate 

Qwhare  as  in  ward  full  oft  I  wold  bewaille 
My  dedely  lyf,  full  of  peyne  and  penance, 

Saing  zyt  thus,  qvvhat  have  I  gilt  to  faille 
My  freedome  in  this  warld,  and  my  plesance? 
Sin  every  weight  has  thereof  suffisance. 

Bewailing  in  my  chamber  thus  allone, 
Dispeired  of  alljoyeand  remedye, 

For-tirit  of  n»y  thot,  and  wo-begone 
And  to  the  wyndow  gan  I  walke  in  hye, 
To  see  the  warld,  and  folk  that  went  forbye, 

As  for  the  tyme,  though  I  of  mirthis  fude 

Myt  have  no  more,  to  luke  it  did  me  gude. 

One  of  our  highly  gifted  countrymen,  has  devoted  a  chapter 
of  his  "Sketch  Book,"  to  the  memory  of  the  illustrious,  but  un- 
fortunate James,  in  which  he  has  pronounced  a  just  eulogium  on 
his  merits  as  a  scholar  and  a  poet.  "Others,"  says  he  in  the 
conclusion  of  his  spirited  sketch,  "may  speak  of  the  illustrious 
deeds  of  James,  as  a  warrior  and  a  legislator;  but  I  have  de- 
lighted to  view  him  as  the  benefactor  of  the  human  heart,  stoop- 
ing from  his  high  estate  to  sow  the  sweet  flowers  of  poetry  and 
song  in  the  paths  of  common  life.  He  did  all  in  his  power  to 
soften  and  refine  the  spirit  of  his  countrymen.  He  wrote  many 
poems  which  are  now  lost  to  the  world.  He  improved  the  na- 
tional music ;  and  traces  of  his  tender  and  elegant  taste,  may  be 
found  in  those  witching  airs  still  piped  among  the  wild  moun- 
tains and  lonely  glens  of  Scotland.  He  has  embalmed  his  mem- 
ory in  song,  and  floated  it  down  to  after  ages,  in  the  rich  stream 
of  Scottish  melody.'"! 

During  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  flourished  a 
number  of  English  historians  and  civilians,  some  of  whose  names 
have  been  rescued  from  the  oblivion  that  was  the  fate  of  < 

'  Robertson's  Hist,  of  Scot.  vol.  \ ,  179. 
*  Sketch  Book  of  Geoffrey  Cravon.Gent. 

42 

'*" 


S30 


IllfcTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


But  even  these  were  not  remarkable  either  for  elegance  of  style 
or  perspicuity  of  narration;  they  have  recorded  many  facts 
which  constitute  important  links  in  the  chain  of  history,  but 
many  of  these  are  so  disfigured  with  ridiculous  stories  of  visions, 
miracles  and  portentous  appearances,  that  it  is  difficult  in  many 
cases  to  separate  truth  from  falsehood.  These  historians,  like 
most  of  their  predecessors,  were  monks,  who  held  but  little  in- 
tercourse with  the  great  world  before  them — they  mingled  but 
little  with  the  moving  mass  of  population,  and  were  thus  incapa- 
ble of  properly  appreciating  the  motives,  that  gave  rise  to  some 
of  the  most  important  events.  Their  histories  then,  were  little 
more  than  a  mere  record  of  facts — a  dry  and  uninteresting  detail. 
We  will,  however,  take  a  brief  notice  of  a  few  of  those  who  ex- 
cited some  attention  in  their  day.  and  whose  works  are  worth 
remembering.  The  best  historian  of  the  early  part  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  is  Thomas  Walsingliam,  a  monk  of  St.  Albans. 
His  historical  works  are  more  full  and  satisfactory  than  that  of 
the  other  annalists  of  those  times,  and  contain  a  narrative  of 
many  important  events  in  the  civil  and  religious  history  of  the 
country,  no  where  else  to  be  found.  He  was  the  author  of  two 
works  which  have  rescued  his  name  from  the  oblivion  that  a- 
waited  many  of  his  contemporaries;  one  is  entitled  "A  history  of 
England,"  beginning  at  the  57th  year  of  the  reign  of  Henry  III, 
A.  D.  1273,  and  concludes  with  the  death  of  Henry  V  and  the 
appointment  of  Humphrey  Duke  of  Gloucester  to  the  regency 
A.  D.  1422;  the  other  is  a  history  of  Normandy  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  tenth  century,  to  the  year  1418,  in  which  he  introdu- 
ces an  account  of  the  affairs  of  England,  as  connected  with  that 
important  duchy.  He  dedicated  the  latter  work  to  king  Henry 
V,  and  informs  his  majesty  that  he  composed  it  expressly  to  put 
him  on  his  guard  against  the  intrigues  and  perfidy  of  the  courf 
of  France. 

Thomas  Otterbournc,  a  Franciscan  friar,  composed  a  history  oi 
England,  from  the  landing  of  Brutus  the  Trojan  to  A.  D.  1420. 
This  work  is  a  compilation  from  the  works  of  preceding  histori- 
ans. Thomas  de  Elmham,  prior  of  Linton,  wrote  a  history  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  V,  which  contains  some  valuable  information  with 
regard  to  that  monarch,  and  the  events  of  his  reign.  It  is  entitled 
to  the  more  credit,  as  he  was  contemporary  with  Henry,  and  was 
a.n  eye  witness  to  many  of  the  events  he  reeord?,  A  history  of 


», 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

^£          *  V    ^  J^^^~W:  «-*C/JL 

Henry  was  also  written  by  an  Italian,  who  visited  England,  and 
was  protected  by  Humphrey  duke  of  Gloucester,  who  was  a 
munificent  patron  of  learned  men.  This  work  is  an  epitome  of 
the  history  of  Thomas  de  Elmham,  but  much  improved  by  leav- 
ing out  some  things  that  were  trifling  and  unimportant,  and  ad- 
ding others  of  more  consequence.  The  work  is  written  in  Latin, 
and  is  a  professed  imitation  of  the  style  of  Livy,  whose  name  he 
assumed. 

Contemporary  with  some  of  the  writers  above  mentioned  was 
Sir  John  Fortescue,  famous  for  his  knowledge  of  the  civil  and  com- 
mon law.  He  was  the  third  son  of  Sir  Henry  Fortescue,  lord 
chief  justice  of  Ireland,  and  at  a  proper  age  was  entered  a  stu- 
dent in  LmcolnVInn,  where  he  was  so  diligent  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  his  studies^  that  on  being  admitted  to  the  bar,  he  soon 
acquired  great  reputation,  and  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the 
king's  bench,  A.  D.  1442.  Previous  to  his  time  the  nature  of 
the  constitution  of  England  was  but  little  understood,  even  by 
men  the  most  learned  in  the  law.  For  the  instruction  of  Ed- 
ward, prince  of  Wales,  son  of  Henry  VI,  he  composed  a  trea- 
tise entitled  "De  Laudibus  Legum  Angliae,"  in  which  he  shews 
that  the  government  of  England,  by  its  constitution,  is  a  limited 
and  not  an  absolute  monarchy.  This  work  is  highly  esteemed 
by  English  lawyers  for  the  soundness  of  its  political  doctrines, 
and  the  justness  of  its  views  on  matters  that  deeply  interested 
the  monarch  and  his  subjects.  Sir  John  was  taken  prisoner  in 
the  battle  of  Tewksbury,  which  decided  the  fate  of  queen  Mar- 
garet and  her  son.  Edward  IV,  in  a  short  time  restored  him  to 
liberty  and  received  him  into  favour.  Although  he  acknowledg- 
ed the  title  of  Edward  to  the  crown,  he  still  entertained  the  same 
opinions  with  regard  to  the  interpretation  of  the  constitution, 
and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  difference  between  an  absolute  and 
limited  monarcy,  which  was  not  printed  until  A.  D.  1 714.  This 
treatise  was  written  for  the  use  of  Edward  IV,  and  is  valuable 
in  modern  times  on  account  of  the  many  curious  particulars  it 
contains  concerning  the  constitution  of  England,  and  the  condi- 
tion of  its  inhabitants — it  is  an  extraordinary  work,  when  we 
consider  the  period  at  which  it  was  written,  and  "affords  full  ev- 
idence of  the  learning,  wisdom,  uprightness,  public  spirit  and 
loyal  gratitude  of  its-  author,  as  any  that  is  extant  in  ours,  or  in. 
any  modern  language. v 


332  TJ1STORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

In  the  reigns  of  Henry  VI  and  Edward  IV,  also  flourished  the 
Earl  of  Worcester,  who  early  distinguished  himself  for  his  love  of 
learning,  and  his  desire,  notwithstanding  the  troubles  of  the 
times,  to  promote  the  cause  of  literature  and  science.  His  love 
of  learning  induced  him  to  quit  his  native  land,  for  the  purpose 
of  visiting  the  seats  of  learning  in  Italy,  then  more  renowned 
than  those  of  any  other  country  of  Europe.  Literature  was 
then  enjoying  the  protection  of  the  illustrious  house  of  Medici, 
which  stands  first  upon  the  rolls  of  literary  fame  in  modern  times. 
The  example  and  influence  of  the  members  of  this  munificent 
family,  had 'extended  the  pride  of  learning  beyond  the  walls  of 
Florence,  and  at  Padua,  the  earl  remained  sometime  convers- 
ing with  learned  doctors,  and  storing  his  mind  with  useful  knowl- 
edge. During  his  residence  in  Italy  he  visited  Rome  where  he 
attracted  the  notice  of  Pius  II,  better  known  in  the  literary 
world  under  the  name  of  ^Eneas  Sylvius,  who  pronounced  the 
flattering  compliment,  that  "he  was  the  only  prince  of  the  times, 
who,  for  virtue  and  eloquence  could  be  justly  compared  to  the 
most  excellent  emperors  of  Greece  and  Rome."  As  an  author 
the  earl  of  Worcester  does  not  occupy  a  very  elevated  rank;  his 
principal  writings  consisted  of  translations  from  the  works  of  the 
ancients.  His  chief  claim  to  notice  in  this  sketch  arises  from 
the  ardour  with  which  he  sought  to  acquire  knowledge  himself, 
and  the  zeal  with  which  he  engaged  in  the  collection  of  books, 
a  considerable  amount  of  which  he  presented  to  the  university 
of  Oxford.  He  became  involved  in  the  troubles  which  convuls- 
ed his  country  and  was  beheaded  A.  D.  1470. 

Although  we  have  seen  learning  diffusing  its  blessings  over 
England  by  means  of  its  universities  and  other  seminaries,  the 
youth  of  the  neighboring  kingdom  of  Scotland  possessed  none  of 
the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  such  sources,  until  after  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century.  We  have  already  taken  no- 
tice of  several  learned  men,  who  were  natives  of  Scotland,  but 
they  were  indebted  for  their  knowledge  to  more  favored  regions. 
The  history  of  that  country  presents  for  many  centuries  nothing 
but  a  series  of  internal  wars — of  bloody  contests  between  rival 
chieftains,  or  between  the  throne  and  powerful  and  turbulent 
nobles.  A  state  of  society  so  distracted  and  divided,  presented 
barriers  almost  insurmountable,  to  the  cultivation  of  intellect 
and  the  inarch  of  mind.  At  length  about  the  year  1410,  a  few 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  333 

men  of  learning  associated  together  for  the  purpose  of  lecturing 
gratuitously  to  those  who  chose  to  attend  their  lectures,  and 
thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  university  of  St.  Andrews,  which 
was  subsequently  confirmed  and  established  by  virtue  of  a  char- 
ter from  Henry  Wardlaw,  bishop  of  St.  Andrews,  "constitut" 
ing  and  declaring  it  to  be  a  university,  for  the  study  of  divinity, 
law,  medicine,  and  the  liberal  arts."  This  university  possessed 
all  the  powers,  privileges  and  immunities,  possessed  by  other  sim- 
ilar institutions,  and  soon  became  conspicuous  as  a  seat  of  learn- 
ing. It  flourished  exceedingly  under  the  patronage  of  the  learned 
and  liberal  James  I,  who  rewarded  the  professors  with  many 
marks  of  favor.  The  following  ordinance  for  the  government 
of  its  members,  shews,  that  however  learned,  they  were  not  re- 
markable for  the  purity  of  their  lives;  "We  ordain  further,  that 
all  the  members  of  the  said  college  live  decently,  as  becomes  ec- 
clesiastics; that  they  do  not  keep  concubines  publicly;  that  they 
be  not  common  night-walkers  or  robbers,  or  habitually  guilty  of 
other  notorious  crimes;  and  if  any  one  of  them  is  so  (which  God 
forbid,)  let'him  be  corrected  by  his  superior,  and  if  he  proves 
incorrigible,  let  him  be  deprived  by  the  same  superior,  and  a- 
nother  substituted  in  his  place."  Lamentable  indeed,  is  this 
picture  of  the  Scottish  clergy!  of  those  who  may  be  considered 
as  the  elite  of  the  order,  and  to  whom  was  assigned  the  care  of 
improving  the  minds,  as  well  as  guarding  the  morals,  of  the 
youth  of  the  land! 

The  succes  which  attended  the  establishment  of  the  university 
of  St.  Andrews,  induced  the  foundation  of  a  similar  institution 
at  Glasgow.  By  the  influence  of  William  Turnbull,  bishop  of 
Glasgow,  James  II,  applied  to  pope  Nicholas  V,  who  issued  a 
bull,  dated  26th  December  A.  D.  1450,  establishing  a  university 
at  Glasgow,  with  all  the  powers  and  privileges  usually  apper- 
taining to  such  institutions,  James  II  in  1453,  took  it  under  his 
special  patronage  and  protection,  and  exempted  the  professors 
and  scholars  from  all  taxes,  and  in  1459,  it  received  a  valuable 
donation  from  James,  Lord  Hamilton,  and  his  wife  the  countess 
of  Douglas,  for  which  the  members  of  the  college  were  to  per. 
form  certain  prescribed  religious  rites,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
souls  of  the  donors.  These  two  universities  after  the  revival* 
and  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing,  long  flour* 


334  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

ished.  and  sent  forth  many  men  who  have  adorned  their  coun- 
try, and  shed  a  lustre  on  these  seats  of  learning.* 


CHAPTER  xx. 


Of  the  revival  of  learning  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  that  period  of  our  history  when  the 
rays  of  literature  and  science  began  to  spread  abroad  with  in- 
creased effulgence — when  learning  protected  and  encouraged 
by  liberal  and  enlightened  men,  aided  by  the  invaluable  discov- 
ery of  the  art  of  printing,  began  to  diffuse  its  blessings  over  a  be- 
nighted world. 

During  the  long  period  of  darkness  and  ignorance  in  the  west, 
literature  still  maintained  some  footing  in  the  eastern  empire, 
but  when  that  portion  of  Europe  fell  before  the  victorious  cres- 
cent of  Mahomet,  although  a  deplorable  event  in  her  history,  it 
contributed  to  the  advancement  of  literature  in  the  west.  In 
the  year  1387,  Emmanuel  Chrysoloras,  a  learned  Greek,  being 
sent  on  an  embassy  to  implore  the  aid  of  the  Christian  princes 
of  Europe  against  the  Turks,  visited  the  different  cities  of  Italy, 
and  revived  that  taste  for  the  Greek  language  and  Grecian  lit- 
erature, which  had  declined  after  the  death  of  Boccacio.  After 
the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  Mahomet  A.  D.  1453,  many 
learned  Greeks  sought  refuge  in  Italy,  and  found  protection  in 
the  house  of  Medici. 

This  illustrious  family  had  been  long  established  at  Florence, 
and  from  simple  merchants,  attained  to  the  first  honors  of  the 
republic.  Their  commercial  transactions  were  extensive,  and 
their  wealth  unbounded,  so  that  it  was  amply  in  their  power  to 
give  that  protection  to  letters  which  so  eminently  distinguished 
Cosmo,  Lorenzo  and  Leo  the  Tenth.  The  first  distinguished 
patron  of  learning  in  this  family  was  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  the  son 

*  Henry's  Hist.  ofGr.  Britain.  Mosh.  Eccl.  hist.  Sisraondi  Lit.  of  the  South  of  Eur* 
Sismondi  Hist,  des  Rep.  ItaU  Carey's  Daijte.  Dobson  Peti,  Boc,  Decam, 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  335 

of  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  who  had  been  honored  by  his  fellow- 
citizens  of  Florence  with  the  highest  offices,  as  a  reward  for  in- 
tegrity, affability  and  moderation,  and  his  liberal  munificence. 
Cosmo  early  took  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  government,  and  soon 
acquired  considerable  influence,  not  only  by  reason  of  his  im- 
mense wealth,  but  those  endowments  and  qualifications  which 
fitted  him  in  an  eminent  degree  for  the  duties  of  government. 
After  having  for  some  time  filled  the  chief  office  of  the  republic, 
with  advantage  to  his  country,  Rinaldo  de'  Albizi  having  ob- 
tained the  chief  power,  procured  his  banishment  from  Florence 
for  ten  years.  This  event  happened  A.  D.  1433.  Cosmo  em- 
ployed the  period  of  his  banishment,  in  visiting  different  parts 
of  Italy,  noting  whatever  was  worth  observation,  and  in  collect- 
ing manuscripts.  The  power  of  his  enemies  continued  about  a 
year,  at  the  end  of  which  time  Cosmo  was  recalled  from  banish- 
ment, and  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  enjoyed  almost  uninter- 
rupted prosperity.  He  was  thus  enabled  to  gratify  his  own 
wishes  in  the  encouragement  of  learning,  and  the  promotion  of 
its  interests.  He  devoted  those  hours  not  engaged  in  public 
business,  to  the  acquirement  of  knowledge  in  every  branch  of 
learning,  and  was  always  surrounded  by  learned  men.  Poggio, 
one  of  the  distinguished  scholars  of  the  times,  and  who  enjoyed 
the  confidence  of  Cosmo,  addressing  him  says,  "devoted  to  the  study 
•of  letters  from  your  early  years,  you  have  by  your  example  given 
additional  splendor  to  science  itself.  Although  involved  in  the 
weightier  concerns  of  state,  and  unable  to  devote  a  great  part  of 
your  time  to  books,  yet  you  have  found  constant  satisfaction  in 
the  society  of  those  learned  men  who  have  always  frequented 
your  house."  Previous  to  the  arrival  of  the  learned  Greeks,  to 
whom  we  have  alluded,  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  was  the  fa- 
vorite system,  and  had  many  powerful  advocates — other  systems 
were  but  partially  known.  In  the  time  of  Cosmo,  a  Greek  nam- 
ed Pletho,  a  disciple  of  the  Platonic  school,  delivered  lectures 
unfolding  and  explaining  the  philosophy  of  his  master.  He 
propagated  his  opinions  with  so  much  zeal  and  success,  that  a 
wonderful  reformation  was  soon  wrought,  and  Plato  towered 
above  Aristotle.  Cosmo  himself  attended  the  lectures  of  Pletho 
and  was  so  charmed  with  the  doctrines  of  the  "divine  Plato," 
that  he  formed  the  design  of  founding  a  Platonic  academy  at 
Florence.  For  this  purpose  he  caused  Ficinus.  the  son  of  his 


336  'HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

first  physician,  to  be  carefully  instructed  in  the  doctrines  of  his 
favorite  system,  and  in  the  language  of  Greece,  that  he  might  be 
able  to  translate  into  Latin  the  most  celebrated  productions  of 
the  Platonists.  The  acquirements  of  Ficinus  answered  all  his 
expectations,  and  he  translated  into  Latin  such  of  the  works  of 
Plato  as  he  could  procure,  and  those  of  Plotinus  and  others. 
By  means  of  these  translations  the  Platonic  system  became  more 
extensively  known,  and  a  warm  controversy  arose  between  the 
disciples  of  Aristotle  and  Plato,  with  regard  to  the  merits  of 
their  respective  systems,  which  contributed  in  no  small  degree 
to  enlarge  the  mind  and  promote  the  cause  of  science. 

The  example  of  Cosmo  and  those  enlightened  men  by  whom 
he  was  surrounded,  created  an  earnest  desire  in  others  to  recov- 
er from  the  dust  of  ages,  the  works  of  ancient  writers,  and  men 
of  wealth  exerted  themselves  in  this  pursuit,  sparing  neither 
pains  or  expense.  By  these  means  valuable  manuscripts  of 
Greek  and  Roman  writers  were  rescued  from  obscure  corners 
where  they  had  lain  for  ages,  and  were  on  the  point  of  falling  a 
prey  to  the  ravages  of  time  and  the  ignorance  of  those  in  whose 
possession  they  were.  The  discovery  of  an  ancient  manuscript, 
says  Roscoe  in  his  life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  was  regarded  as 
almost  equivalent  to  the  conquest  of  a  kingdom.  With  such 
patrons  as  Cosmo  and  his  associates,  and  such  enthusiasm  in  its 
cause,  learning  could  not  be  otherwise  than  in  a  flourishing  con- 
dition. But,  while  the  learned  were  thus  engaged  in  the  search 
of  the  remains  of  ancient  literature  and  science,  and  neglected 
the  composition  of  original  works,  it  may  be  asked  whether  the 
cause  of  learning  was  benefited?  Some,  perhaps,  may  be  dis- 
posed to  say,  that  it  would  have  redounded  more  to  its  literary 
reputation,  had  the  learned  men  of  the  age  transmitted  to  pos- 
terity more  of  the  fruit  of  their  studies — that  it  would  have 
marked  more  distinctly  the  progress  and  effect  of  the  learning 
of  the  times.  At  first  sight  this  appears  plausible  enough,  and 
will  strike  with  some  force,  but  a  little  reflection  upon  the  litera- 
ry condition  of  the  world  previous  to  this  time,  which  we  have 
in  the  foregoing  pages  endeavored  to  portray,  will  convince, 
that  their  labors  were  more  beneficially  employed  for  man- 
kind, in  the  search  for,  and  preservation  of,  the  works  of  the 
ancient  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  than  they  could  have  been 
in' their  closets,  pouring  over  and  committing  to  writing,  0.?*. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 


337 


crude  ideas  and  erroneous  opinions  in  philosophy,  science  and 
religion,  that  prevailed  antecedent  to  this  period.  By  their 
labors  they  have  restored  to  us  the  inestimable  works  of  men, 
whose  names  will  never  be  forgotten,  while  learning  is  cherish- 
ed, or  wisdom  held  in  estimation — and  upon  whose  inestimable 
productions  modern  genius  has  erected  its  proudest  memorials 
of  literary  fame.  Without  their  efforts,  those  works,  in  all  hu- 
man probability,  would  have  been  lost,  and  the  long  catalogue  of 
philosophers,  historians  and  poets,  which  now  dazzles  by  its  lus- 
tre, would  not  have  been  in  existence — for  it  can  be  easily  de- 
monstrated, that  almost  all  our  knowledge  may  be  traced  to  this 
prolific  fountain. 

Among  the  distinguished  men  of  this  period  is  Poggio  Braccio- 
lini.  He  was  born  in  the  year  1381,  of  a  noble  family  of  Flor- 
ence, and  having  passed  many  years  of  his  early  life  in  travelling 
through  the  different  countries  of  Europe  for  the  improvement 
of  his  mind,  he  at  length  settled  at  Rome,  where  he  served  eight 
successive  pontiffs,  in  the  capacity  of  secretary.  In  1452,  he 
was  invited  to  Florence,  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
Poggio  was  a  voluminous  author,  and  is  generally  admired  for 
the  unaffected  and  simple  style  of  his  writings,  but  some  of  his 
tales  are  rather  licentious,  and  are  censurable  for  their  inde- 
cency of  language.  He  seems  to  have  been  an  enemy  of  the 
clergy,  and  to  have  frequently  indulged  in  bitter  satire  upon 
their  vicious  and  profligate  course  of  life.  He  appears  to  have 
devoted  himself,  under  the  patronage  of  Cosmo,  with  great  dili- 
gence to  the  collection  of  manuscripts,  and  was  remarkably  suc- 
cessful in  his  exertions.  "The  number  of  manuscripts  discover- 
ed by  him  in  different  parts. of  Europe,  during  the  space  of  near 
fifty  years,  will  remain  a  lasting  proof  of  his  perseverance,  and 
his  sagacity  in  these  pursuits.  Whilst  he  attended  the  council 
of  Constance  in  the  year  1415,  he  took  an  opportunity  of  visiting 
the  convent  of  Saint  Gallo,  distant  from  the  city  about  twenty 
miles,  where  he  had  been  informed  that  it  was  probable  he  might 
find  some  manuscripts  of  the  ancient  Roman  writers.  In  this 
place  he  had  the  happiness  to  discover  a  complete  copy  of  Quin- 
tillian,  whose  works  had  before  appearea  only  in  a  mutilated  and 
imperfect  state.  At  the  same  time  he  found  the  three  first 
books,  and  part  of  the  fourth,  of  the  Argonautics  of  Valerius 

43 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

Flaccus.''*  These  works  were  buried  in  the  obscurity  of  a 
dark  and  lojlely  tower,  covered  with  filth  and  rubbish,  and  their 
destruction  seemed  inevitable.  From  a  similar  condition  were 
many  other  manuscripts  rescued  by  his  persevering  zeal. 

Besides  Poggio,  there  were  several  others  whose  exertions 
•tyere  used  in  the  same  way.  Some  of  these  zealous  and  enter- 
prising men,  visited  Constantinople,  and  other  parts  of  the  eas- 
tern empire,  where  their  labors  were  rewarded  by  the  discover) 
and  acquisition  of  valuable  works,  in  the  various  departments  of 
ancient  literature  and  science.  One  of  these  adventurers!  was 
unfortunately  lost  on  his  return  to  Italy,  with  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  books  which  he  had  rescued  from  the  cells  of  monasteries, 
to  be  swallowed  up  in  the  mighty  deep;  anotherj  more  fortunate 
arrived  at  Venice,  A.  D.  1423,  with  two  hundred  and  thirty- 
eight  manuscripts,  amongst  which  were  all  the  works  of  Plato, 
Proclus,  Plotinus,  Lucian,  Xenophon,  the  histories  of  Arrain, 
Dio,  and  Diodorus  Siculus,  the  geography  of  Strabo,  the  po- 
ems of  Callimachus,  Pindar,  Oppian  and  Orpheus.  Francesco 
Filelfo,  also  contributed  greatly  to  the  diffusion  of  knowledge 
by  the  great  number  of  manuscripts  he  collected  in  Constanti- 
nople between  the  years  1420  and  1427,  when  he  returned  to 
Italy.  He  was  greatly  favored  in  his  researches  by  the  aid  re- 
ceived from  John  Chrysoloras,  a  learned  Greek,  whose  daughter 
he  married.  Filelfo  was'employed  at  different  times  after  his 
return  to  Italy,  as  a  professor  in  most  of  the  celebrated  semina- 
ries of  learning,  but  possessing  an  unhappy  disposition,  his  efforts 
in  communicating  information  to  his  scholars,  were  not  very  suc- 
cessful. His  unhappy  temper  of  mind  kept  him  constantly  en- 
gaged in  quarrels,  and  he  is  even  said  to  have  conspired  against 
the  life  of  his  patron  and  benefactor,  Cosmo  de'  Medici.  As  a 
writer,  Filelfo  holds  a  very  respectable  station,  having  written 
on  almost  every  branch  of  literature.|| 

After  having,  by  the  aid  of  the  distinguished  persons  mention- 
ed, and  his  agents  and  factors  in  the  Levant,  become  possessed 
of  a  large  and  valuable  collection  of  books,  Cosmo  de'  Medici 
founded  at  Florence  a  library,  which  became  the  constant  ob- 
ject of  his  care.  Under  his  grand-son,  Lorenzo,  this  library; 

•   Roscoe's  Lor.  de'  Medici,  vol.  1,  36. 

I  Guarino  Veronese,  the  first  native  Italian  who  publicly  taught  Greek  io  Itah 

t  Giovanni  Aurispa.  .  ||  Roscoe's  Life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  33^ 

increased,  by  the  addition  of  many  rare  and  valua- 
ble works.  Soon  after  the  foundation  of  .the  Medicean  libra- 
ry, Niccolo  Niccoli,  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Florence,  founded  a 
library  for  the  use  of  the  public,  but  on  his  death  it  was 
discovered  that  he  was  much  in  debt,  and  that  his  liberal 
design  would  be  frustrated  from  the  embarrassed  state  of  his 
affairs;  Cosmo  agreed  to  pay  the  debts  of  Niccolo,  on  condition 
that  his  executors  would  place  his  library  at  his  disposal,  which 
being  agreed  to,  he  deposited  the  books  in  the  monastery  of  St. 
Mark  for  public  use,  thereby  fulfilling  the  intentions  of  the  ori- 
ginal proprietor.  About  this  time  also  pope  Nicholas  V  founded 
the  library  of  the  Vatican,  now  one  of  the  most  valuable  and 
extensive  libraries  in  the  world. 

About  this  time  was  invented  that  most  useful  art — "the  art 
preservative  of  all  arts" — the  art  of  printing,  from  which  incal- 
culable blessings  have  flowed.     Previous  to  this  important  dis- 
covery all  books  were  in  manuscript,  and  as  the  process  by  which 
copies  were  multiplied  was  tedious  and  laborious,  so  was  it  ex- 
pensive.    None  but  the  wealthiest  class  could  purchase  a  book 
—to  the  humbler  portion  of  the  community  the  luxury  of  a  book 
was  denied,  and  hence  it  was  that  learning  was  confined  to  a 
few,  and  the  people  in  general  were  ignorant.     But  when  books 
came  to  be  multiplied  with  so  much  ease,  and  at  so  trifling  arr 
expense,  learning  was  brought  to  the  door  of  every  man,  and 
the  son  of  a  peasant  became  as   distinguished  in  the  walks  of 
literature  and  science,  as  the  son  of  the  proudest  peer.     A  vast 
number  of  valuable  books,  have  by  this  means  been  preserved 
that,  notwithstanding  the  pains  and  expense  in  collecting  thern^ 
might  have  been  totally  and  irrecoverably  lost.     The  honor  of 
giving  birth  to  this  invention  has  been  disputed  by  several  cities. 
Strasburgh  claims  it  for  John  Guttemburg;  Mentz  for  John 
Fust  or  Faust,  and  Haarlem  for  John  Koster.     This  dispute  is 
unimportant,  and  its  decision  a  matter  of  no  interest,  except  so 
far  as  the  gratification  of  curiosity.     It  is  sufficient  that  the  art 
of  printing  by  means  of  moveable  types  has  been  discovered  by 
one  of  the  individuals  above-mentioned,  and  we  are  now  enjoy- 
ing the  benefits  resulting  from  the  discovery.     This  invention 
was  for  a  time  kept  a  profound  secret,  but  it  was  of  too  much 
importance  to  remain  so  long,  and  "printing  presses  were  soon 
established  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  from  which  issued  large 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

editions  of  the  best  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  and  the  works  oi 
modern  authors  written  in  their  native  tongue.  The  first  book 
printed  with  moveable  types,  was  a  copy  of  the  bible,  which 
made  its  appearance  between  the  years  1450  and  1452. 

On  the  first  day  of  August,  A.  D.  1464,  the  cause  of  literature 
met  with  a  great  loss  in  its  munificent  patron  Cosmo  de'  Medici. 
His  character  exhibits  a  combination  of  virtues  and  endowments, 
rarely  to  be  found  united  in  the  same  person.  He  was  remark- 
able for  his  magnificence  in  public,  as  well  as  for  his  prudence 
in  private  life.  Although  sustaining  the  high  character  of  chief 
of  the  republic  of  Florence,  his  deportment  was  divested  of  all 
ostentation,  and  neither  in  his  retinue,  his  friendships,  or  his  con- 
versation, could  he  be  distinguished  from  any  other  respectable 
citizen.  He  well  knew  the  jealous  temper  of  the  Florentines, 
and  was  careful  to  avoid  every  thing  that  could  excite  their 
jealousy.  Among  the  literary  men  by  whom  he  was  surrounded, 
his  virtues  and  his  liberality  were  the  most  frequent  topic  of 
conversation.  In  every  event  of  his  life  they  were  ready  to  at- 
tend him,  to  participate  with  him  in  his  prosperity,  and  to  sym- 
pathise with  him  in  his  misfortunes — so  much  was  he  beloved  by 
those  who  had  the  best  opportunities  of  knowing  him.* 

Cosmo  left  one  son,  Piero,  who  succeeded  him  in  his  wealth 
and  honors,  but  whose  feeble  health  gave  but  little  promise  of  a 
prosperous  life.  Although  inferior  to  his  father  in  intellectual 
accomplishments,  as  well  as  vigor  of  body,  Piero  gave  sufficient 
evidence  of  his  attachment  to  the  cause  of  letters,  by  his  patron- 
age of  learned  men,  and  the  care  with  which  he  caused  his  son 
Lorenzo  to  be  educated.  Lorenzo  was  about  sixteen  years  of 
age  when  his  grandfather  died,  and  had  then  given  strong  indi- 
cations of  those  extraordinary  talents,  which  subsequently  re- 
flected so  much  lustre  upon  his  native  land.  Under  the  instruc- 
tion of  Gentile  d'  Urbino,  afterwards  bishop  of  Arezzo,  he  re- 
ceived the  first  rudiments  of  his  education,  and  was  afterwards 
under  the  instructions  of  other  eminent  teachers,  among  whom 
was  Landino,  who  had  been  appointed  to  the  office  of  public 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  poetry.  He  became  proficient  in  the 
Greek  language,  and  was  intimately  conversant  with  the  Aristo- 
telian and  Platonic  systems  of  philosophy;  he  possessed  a  fine 
. 

*  Roscoe's  Life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  vol.  1,  p.  68 — 83, 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE.  341 

taste  for  poetry,  and  has  left  behind  him  some  exquisite  produc- 
tions, of  which  the  following  sonnet  may  be  taken  as  a  specimen: 

Oime,  che  belle  lagrime  fur  quelle 

Che'l  nembodi  disio  stillando  mosse! 
%  Quando  il  guisto  dolor  che'l  cor  percosse, 

Sali  poi  su  nell'  amorose  stelle! 
Rigavon  per  la  delicata  pelle 

Le  bianche  guancie  dolcemente  rosse, 

Come  chiar  rio  faria,  che'n  prato  fosse 

Fior  bianchi,e  rossi,  le  lagrime  belle; 
Lieto  amor  stava  in  I'amorosa  pioggia, 

Com'  uccel  dopo  il  sol,  bramate  tanto, 

Lieto  riceve  rugiadose  stille. 
Poi  piangendo  in  quelli  occhi  ov'egli  alloggia. 

Faoea  del  hello  e  doloroso  pianto, 

Visibilimente  uscir  dolce  faville, 

Ah!  pearly  drops,  that  pouring  from  those  eyes 

Spoke  the  dissolving  cloud  of  soft  desire! 

What  time  cold  sorrow  chill'd  the  genial  fire, 

"Struck  the  fair  urn  and  bade  the  waters  rise." 
Soft  down  those  cheeks,  where  native  crimson  vies 

With  ivory  whiteness,  see  the  chrystals  throng; 

As  some  clear  river  winds  its  stream  along, 

•  Bathing  the  flowers  of  pale  and  purple  dies. 

Whilst  Love,  rejoicing  in  the  amorous  shower 
Stands  like  some  bird,  that  after  sultry  heats 
Enjoys  the  drops, and  shakes  his  glittering  wings; 
Then  grasps  his  bolt,  and,  conscious  of  his  power 
Midst  those  bright  orbs  assumes  his  wonted  seat 
And  through  the  lucid  shower  his  living  lightning  flings. 

Roscoe. 

Lorenzo  possed  a  versatility  of  poetic  talent,  and  such  facility 
of  composition,  that  it  was  a  mere  amusement  to  him;  he  at- 
tempted all  kinds  of  poetic  composition,  and  his  sonnets  which 
were  numerous,  are  not,  in  general,  unworthy  of  Petrarch  him- 
self. His  writings  afforded  many  striking  instances  of  the  gen- 
uine inspiration  of  poetry,  and  a  brilliant  imagination.  The  fol- 
lowing description  of  jealousy  will  not  suffer  by  a  comparison 
with  the  poetry  of  his  most  celebrated  contemporaries,  or  even 
with  that  of  more  modern  poets. 

Solo  una  vecchia  in  un  oscuro  canto, 

Pallida,  il  sol  fuggendo,  si  sedea, 

Tacita  sospirando,  ed  un  ammanto 

D'unincerto  color  cangiante  havea: 

Cento  occhi  ha  in  testa,  e  tutti  versan  pianto 
'     E  cent'  orecchie  la  maligna  dear 

Quel  ch'e,quelche  non  e,tristaodeevede. 

Mai  dorme,  ed  ost'mata  a  se  sol  crede 


342  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE, 

Sad  in  a  nook  obscure,  and  sighing  deep, 

A  pale  and  haggard  beldam  shrinks  from  view;  "    :, 

Her  gloomy  vigils  there  she  loves  to  keep, 
Wrapt  in  a  robe  of  ever-changing  hue; 
A  hundred  eyes  she  has,  that  ceaseless  weep, 
A  hundred  ears  that  pay  attention  due. 
Imagined  evils  aggravate  her  grief, 
Heedless  of  sleep,  and  stubborn  to  relief. 

Roscot. 

The  foregoing  extracts  will  suffice  to  give  some  idea  of  the  po- 
etical genius  and  talents  of  Lorenzo.  As  a  patron  of  learning 
the  name  of  Lorenzo  the  magnificent  stands  high  on  the  rolls  of 
fame ;  contemporary  writers  have  sounded  his  praises,  and  their 
successors  have  echoed  the  notes.  He  followed  the  example  of 
his  illustrious  grandsire — no  niggardly  calculations  of  expence, 
ever  staid  his  hand  for  a  moment,  when  the  interests  of  learning 
were  to  be  advanced,  and  hence  during  his  lifetime,  it  flourished 
in  a  very  great  degree,  and  not  only  Florence,  but  all  Italy  aboun- 
ded with  learned  men ;  a  notice  of  two  or  three  of  them  will  bring 
our  sketches  to  a  close. 

Politiano,  who  was  born  on  the  24th  July  1454,  applied  him- 
self to  the  study  of  those  branches  of  learning  which  occupied 
the  attention  of  the  scholars  of  the  times.  He  gave  early  indi- 
cations of  a  talent  for  poetry,  in  the  composition  of  Latin  and 
Greek  epigrams,  which  attracted  the  notice  of  his  teachers  and 
procured  their  commendation.  A  tournament  given  in  honor  of 
the  marriage  of  Braccio  Martello,  afforded  Politiano  an  oppor- 
tunity of  making  a  display  of  his  talents,  which  introduced  him 
to  the  particular  notice  of  Lorenzo.  In  this  tournament  Julian 
de'  Medici  was  the  victor,  and  Politiano  produced  a  poem  enti- 
tled the  Giostra  of  Giuliano  de*  Medici^  a  wonderful  production 
for  a  youth  but  little  more  than  fourteen  years  of  age.  The  po- 
et represents  Julian  in  the  flower  of  his  age,  devoted  to  the  bril- 
liant career  of  manly  exercises,  aspiring  after  glory  and  con- 
temning the  shafts  of  love.  A  single  extract,  in  which  he  adverts 
to  his  repugnance  to  surrender  his  heart  to  the  attacks  of  the 
fair,  will  afford  a  favorable  specimen  of  the  style  and  manner  of 
i  he  youthful  poet. 

Ah  quante  Kinfe  per  lui  sospirorno! 
Ma  fu  si  altero  sempre  il  giovinetto, 
Che  mai  le  Ninfe  amanti  lo  piegorno 
Mai  poti  riscaldarsi  '1  freddo  petto . 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  343 

Facea  sovente  pe'  boschi  soggiorno ; 
Inculto  sempre,  e  rigido  m  aspetto ; 
II  volto  diffendea  dal  solar  raggio 
Con  ghirlanda  di  pino,  O  verde  faggio. 

For  Julian  many  a  maiden  heav'd  the  sigh, 

And  many  a  glance  the  tender  flame  confest, 

But  not  the  radiance  of  the  brightest  eye 

Could  melt  the  icy  rigor  of  his  breast. 

Wide  thro'  the  trackless  woods  the  youth  would  hie, 

Serene  of  aspect  and  disdaining  rest: 

Whilst  the  dark  pine,  or  spreading  beach  supplied 

A  wreath,  from  summer  suns  his  head  to  hide. 

Roscoe. 

Politiano  undoubtedly  possessed  a  fine  genius  with  a  highly  gif- 
ted and  cultivated  mind, but  it  seems  to  us  that  he  possessed  all  the 
waywardness  of  genius,  and  that  he  wanted  that  steadiness  of 
purpose  which  conducts  to  eminence.  The  poem  from  which 
the  foregoing  beautiful  extract  is  taken,  was  never  finished.  He 
seems  to  have  abandoned  his  native  tongue,  and  wasted  his  tal- 
ents in  dry  philosophical  discussions,  or  on  poems  written  in  La- 
tin, which  were  understood  only  by  the  learned.  Had  he  con- 
fined himself  to  the  cultivation  of  poetry  in  his  own  sonorous  lan- 
guage, he  might  have  rivaled  the  fame  of  Petrarch  or  Dante. 

Luigi  Pulci  was  also  a  native  of  Florence,  the  contemporary 
of  Politiano,  and  his  rival  in  literary  renown.  He  was  the 
youngest  of  three  brothers,  to  all  of  whom  the  nymphs  of  Par- 
nassus had  shewn  special  favor.  The  tournament  already  men- 
tioned, which  gave  occasion  to  the  poem  of  Politiano  produced 
one  from  Pulci,  entitled  the  Giostra  of  Lorenzo  de*  Medici,  written 
in  his  twentieth  year.  By  those  who  are  intimately  acquainted 
with  Italian  poetry,  it  is  considered  as  much  inferior  both  in 
language  and  interest  to  that  of  his  rival.  It  gives  a  minute  ac- 
count <*f  the  exhibition,  describing  all  the  preparations  for  the 
combat,  and  the  personal  appearance  of  the  combatants.  The 
following  account  of  the  attack  of  Lorenzo  on  Benedetto  Satutati, 
may  be  justly  placed  alongside  any  passage  in  the  poem  of  Poli- 
tiano. 

Vedestu  mai  falcon  calare  a  piouibu, 
E  poi  spianarsi,  e  batter  forte  1'alc. 
C'ha  tratto  fuori  della  schiera  il  Colombo '! 
Cosi  Lorenzo  Benedetto  assale; 
Tanto  che  1'aria  fa  fischiar  pel  rombo, 
IVon  vu  si  presto  folgor,  non  che  strale; 


344  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE:. 

Dettonsi  colpi  che  parvon  d'Achille 
Et  balza  un  mongibel  fuori  di  faville. 

Hast  thou  not  seen  the  falcon  in  his  flight, 
When  high  in  air  on  balanc'd  wing  he  hung, 
On  some  lone  straggler  of  the  covey  light? 

On  Benedetto  thus  Lorenzo  sprung. 

Whistled  the  air,  as  ardent  for  the  fight, 
Fleet  as  the  arrow  flies,  he rush'd along; 
Achilles'  rage  their  meeting  strokes  inspires, 
Their  sparkling  armour  rivals  Etna's  fires. 

Roseoe. 

The  Morgante  Maggiore  is  considered  the  principal  work  of 
Pulci,  and  is  said  to  have  been  written  at  the  particular  request 
of  Lucretia,  the  mother  of  Lorenzo  de*  Medici.  It  consists  of 
twenty-eight  cantos,  and  is  founded  upon  the  romances  so  much 
admired  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Its  characters  are  those  of 
the  chivalric  ages — they  fight  with  and  destroy  giants,  and  re- 
lease captive  maidens  from  the  hands  of  lawless  knights.  The 
style  employed  is  sometimes  serious  and  sometimes  ludicrous, 
and  the  apparent  profanity  of  some  of  the  passages  drew  upon  if 
the  censures  of  the  church,  which  even  in  that  enlightened  age 
was  no  trifling  matter.  Notwithstanding  its  defects  it  still  oc- 
cupies a  respectable  place  among  the  works  of  Italian  poets. 

Besides  the  poets  of  whom  we  have  just  spoken,  there  were 
many  others  well  deserving  notice;  we  might  also,  present  a  list 
of  accomplished  writers  in  the  various  departments  of  literature, 
who  adorned  the  age  in  which  thej  lived,  and  who  have  conse- 
crated the  name  of  Lorenzo  the  magnificent  to  immortal  honor; 
but  a  notice  of  them  and  their  works,  however  interesting  it  might 
be,  would  lead  us  far  beyond  our  original  limits,  and  conduct  us 
into  a  field  of  boundless  extent.  Here  then  we  drop  the  subject, 
and  submit  our  work,  imperfect  as  it  is,  to  the  decision  of  a  can- 
did public. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

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